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SS 2 Government

Elections

Meaning of elections:

Elections, fundamentally, entail the process of selecting candidates for various government offices. These candidates act as representatives of the people in parliamentary and governmental positions. Elections involve a competition between political parties or groups, vying for political power through the mandate of the electorate expressed via the ballot.

Functions/Advantages of Elections:

Elections serve several key functions:

1. Choosing Representatives: Citizens use elections to select individuals who will represent their interests in the government.
2. Smooth Government Transition: Elections facilitate the orderly and smooth transition of power within a government.
3. Legitimacy: The outcomes of elections confer legitimacy on the government by representing the will of the people.
4. Government Responsiveness: The possibility of being voted out encourages governments to be responsive to the needs of the people.
5. Public Education: Political parties utilize elections as a platform to educate the public on national issues.
6. Testing Popularity: Elections provide a means to gauge the popularity of the government or specific political figures.
7. Social Integration: Elections contribute to the integration of diverse societies.
8. Socialization: They play a role in socializing the population.

Demerits of Elections:

However, elections have their downsides:

1. Polarization: Elections can lead to the polarization of a country into antagonistic groups.
2. Disunity: The division caused by elections may result in disunity within a country.
3. Costly Process: Conducting elections can be financially burdensome.
4. Minority Disfavor: Minority groups may not receive fair representation during elections.
5. Uneven Development: Neglect of areas that did not support the ruling party can lead to uneven development.
6. Nepotism and Division: Elections can foster nepotism, divisionism, and ethnocentrism.
7. Deceptive Politicians: Some politicians may deceive the public with false manifestoes and manipulative language.

Types of Election:

1. Direct Election:

  The electorate directly casts votes to choose representatives.

   Advantages:

1. Freedom for voters without interference.
2. Essential for representative government.
3. Guarantees political equality (one man, one vote).
4. Elected representatives usually reflect popular choice.

   Demerits:

1. Lack of political education may lead to unintelligent voting.
2. Potential for hatred and embarrassment.
3. Increased violence during polling.
4. Susceptibility to rigging due to its finality.
5. Potential for corruption, particularly in impoverished societies.

2. Indirect Election:

   Election into the legislature occurs in multiple stages through an Electoral College.

   Merits:

1. Competence of electors in selecting legislature members.
2. Lower violence compared to direct elections.
3. Elected candidates are often more qualified.
4. Less expensive and less prone to rigging.
5. Enhances the quality of legislation and administration.

   Demerits:

1. The Electoral College can be influenced or bribed.
2. Some interests may be underrepresented.
3. Lack of familiarity between the electorate and representatives.
4. Policies may not align with public choices.
5. Less democratic and lacking in equality of votes.

Types Of Voting

Public or Open Ballot System

The public or open ballot system is a voting method where voters cast their votes openly in full view of candidates and the public. In this system, voters express their support by showing hands or queuing behind their chosen candidate or their poster. Unlike secret balloting, there are no polling booths or ballot papers involved. This system gained popularity during Nigeria’s Babangida regime.

Advantages Of Open Ballot System

1. Cost-effective, saving money on polling booths and ballot paper production.
2. Simple and easy to understand.
3. Helps prevent rigging vices such as illegal printing and thumb-printing of ballot papers.
4. Results are easily ascertainable as everything is done openly.
5. Minimizes double-voting compared to secret balloting.
6. Speeds up the announcement of election results.

Disadvantages Of Open Ballot System

1. Associated with intimidation and victimization, making it susceptible to manipulation.
2. Difficult to ensure maximum security.
3. Disenfranchises influential individuals like the president, governors, and traditional rulers.
4. Challenges in crowd control during elections.
5. Time-consuming and may create enmity among voters.
6. Can discourage voter participation.

Secret Ballot System

The secret ballot system involves voters casting their votes in complete secrecy, selecting their preferred candidate in a private enclosure and dropping the ballot into the ballot box.

Advantages Of Secret Ballot System

1. Allows voters to cast their votes freely without fear of intimidation.
2. Democratic and widely accepted.
3. Provides voters the freedom to choose their preferred candidate.
4. Encourages political participation.

Disadvantages of Secret Ballot System

1. Expensive to operate due to the cost of materials like ballot boxes.
2. May encourage electoral malpractices.
3. Voters may mishandle ballot papers, spoiling their votes.
4. Time-consuming and complex.

Compulsory Voting

Compulsory voting makes it mandatory for all eligible voters to participate, treating non-participation as a criminal offense.

Optional Voting

Optional voting grants eligible voters the choice of whether or not to participate.

Voting By Post

Registered voters can cast their votes from outside their registered area by sending their votes through the post.

Voting By Proxy

Absent voters can be represented by an authorized proxy.

Secret Open Voting

Combining elements of both open and secret voting, voters are gathered openly but cast their votes in privacy.

Free And Fair Election

A free and fair election is conducted without harassment or coercion, adhering to democratic principles.

Conditions Necessary For Free And Fair Election

1. Impartial electoral commission.
2. Political parties for competition.
3. Equal division into constituencies.
4. Enactment of electoral laws.
5. Public counting of votes under strict security.
6. Timely announcement of results.
7. Equality of campaigning conditions.
8. Adequate remuneration and training for election officials.
9. Adoption of secret voting.
10. Provision for challenging election results in court.

Organization Of Election

Elections follow a structured pattern, including the formation of electoral acts, setting up electoral commissions, creating districts, registering political parties and voters, nominating candidates, campaigning, Election Day, result declaration, and the option to contest results in an electoral tribunal.

Electoral Commission

Electoral Commission: Definition, Features, And Functions

An electoral commission is an autonomous institution entrusted with the organization and execution of elections within a political system. It operates as an impartial body with the primary responsibility of overseeing the electoral processes in a country.

Key Features of Electoral Commission:

1. Organizing and Conducting Elections: The commission exclusively manages the planning and execution of all electoral events within the political system.

2. Ensuring Free and Fair Elections: The commission is mandated to guarantee the fairness and freedom of elections conducted in the country.

3. Announcement of Election Results: By legal authority, the commission is the sole entity permitted to announce election results.

4. Independent Body: The commission functions as an independent and impartial electoral body.

5. Headed by a Chairman: Oversight and leadership of the commission are vested in the Chairman, with additional members aiding in its operations.

6. Fixed Tenure of Office: The composition of the electoral commission adheres to a specified tenure of office.

7. Resident Commissioner: Each state within the federation has a resident commissioner representing the commission at the state level.

8. Constitutionally Guided: The actions of the commission are consistently governed by constitutional provisions and legal frameworks.

9. Honesty and Fair Play: The commission is expected to demonstrate integrity and fairness, particularly in decision-making related to election conduct.

10. Neutral Body: The commission is required to maintain a neutral stance and avoid partisanship in its outlook.

Functions of the Electoral Commission:

1. Registration of Political Parties: The commission registers political parties in accordance with established rules and regulations.

2. Registration of Voters: Eligible voters are registered by the commission as part of its duties.

3. Provision of Electoral Materials: The commission ensures the availability of essential electoral materials, such as ballot votes and polling booths, during elections.

4. Free and Fair Elections: A core function of the electoral commission is to organize and execute credible, free, and fair elections in the country.

5. Delimitation (Division) of the Country: The commission divides the country into constituencies or electoral districts for the efficient conduct of elections.

6. Appointment and Training: The commission appoints electoral officers and provides training for ad-hoc staff, presiding officers, clerks, and polling orderlies.

7. Counting of Votes: The commission is responsible for the accurate counting of votes and the subsequent release of election results.

8. Financial Grants to Parties: Part of the commission’s role involves providing financial grants to political parties to support their campaigns and election-related activities.

9. Enlightenment: The commission educates the electorate on crucial issues related to elections.

10. Types of Voting: The commission informs voters about the various voting systems adopted in elections, whether through secret or open (public) vote systems.

11. Screening of Candidates: Candidates for election undergo thorough screening, and their eligibility is confirmed before elections take place.

12. Security at Polling Stations: The commission ensures adequate security measures at polling stations to safeguard the lives and properties of both commission staff and voters, preventing unwarranted attacks during elections.

Public Administration

Meaning Of The Civil Service

The civil service is an essential department in the executive arm of government through which the government implements its policies and programmes. It transmits government policies and programmes into services to the people. It is divided into departments called ministries. The political head of a ministry is called a Minister or Commissioner, while the administrative head is called Director General or Permanent Secretary.

Characteristics Of Public Administration

1. Permanence in Office: Civil servants are career government employees who are employed under a merit system in which federal characters is applied. They enjoy a permanent tenure of office. Government comes and goes but the civil service remains. This enables them to carry out their functions.
2. Political Neutrality: This means that they are to remain loyal and dedicated to the ruling party or government of a country. They are not allowed to engage in partisan politics, although they may belong to a political party and vote in elections, their views are private and should not affect their loyalty to the government of the country.
3. Impartiality: This means that the civil servants should discharge their duties with maximum considerations.
4. Anonymity: This means that credit or failure of any administration on any issues does not go to the civil servants. They are also not allowed to speak to the press on issues except that their minister or directors authorize them.
5. Merit: This means that recruitment into government offices is based on merit and not favoritism. This enhances efficiency.
6. Expertise: They are expected to be experts in their fields and offices, which they occupy.
7. Framework of law: This checks the use of arbitrary powers.
8. Hierarchy: This refers to the organization of the system in different levels of importance, from the highest to the lowest

Structure Of The Civil Service

The civil service is classified into the following.

1. Administrative Class: This is the highest class of the civil service. They consist mainly of the Director General, Deputy Director General, and Principal Officers etc. They are mostly graduates and they co-ordinate the activities of their ministry by policy making and advising ministers and commissioners.
2. Executive Class: They deal with the day-to-day conduct of administration following lay down policies. They also implement government policies. They consist of Assistant Executive -Officers, Semi-Executive Officers and Executive Officers.
3. Professional Class: They are trained specially for their jobs. Examples include the lawyers, doctors, engineers etc.
4. Clerical Class: They are involved in the routine jobs of the service. Their jobs include keeping of records, movement of files, preparation of vouchers, statistics etc. They are mostly young school leavers with SSCE, GCE, and NECO etc.
5. Auxiliary Class: Recruitment into this class of workers may not require any formal education or high technical skills. However, such skills might be required to do their jobs. Such jobs include, drivers, cleaners, gardeners, messengers etc

Functions Of The Civil Service

1. Formation of Policy: The administrative and professional class of the civil service formulates policies owing to their wealth of experience. They present these policies to the ministers for final decision and implementation.
2. Implementation of Public Policies: The implementation of public oriented policies results in the execution of services to the public like good roads, electricity schools, hospitals etc.
3. Preparation of Budget: It prepares the government yearly budget of statement of expected revenue and expenditure.
4. They Make Byelaws: They perform sub-legislative functions. A senior civil servant has the power to draw up rules and regulations.
5. Archival Function: Civil servant document government policies and information and keep them safe for future reference in public decisions.

Problems Of The Civil Service

1. Low Incentives: Poor conditions of service reduce the morale of the workers. This is further worsened by the slow promotion process.
2. An issue that needs urgent attention may not be met at the needed time.
3. Negative attitude to work: Most civil servants feel that government work does not deserve the best. They do their work half-heartedly.
4. Political Interference: Most government always interferes by not giving the civil service a free hand to run its affairs. Most politicians equally interfere with the planning and implementation of government policies.
5. Tribalism/nepotism and favouritism: Most unqualified persons are employed based on ethnic affiliations.
6. Political Instability: Frequent military interventions affect policy-making and implementation as director generals, permanent secretaries, ministers and commissioners are changed.
7. Bribery and Corruption: Most civil servants receive bribes and undue gratification for most work done.
8. Lack of qualified personnel: The civil service is always hit by the exodus of workers who seek greener pastures in private companies which offer attractive working conditions.
9. The unfriendliness of the staff: Most civil servants are arrogant and arrogate power to themselves. They are unfriendly to the public and most times are impatient to listen to complaints from the public.

Control Of The Civil Service

1. The civil service and the civil servants can be controlled through the following ways:

2. Legislative Control: Ministers or commissioners can be asked to appear before the legislature and explain their activities.
3. Public Service Commission Control: This body has the power to appoint, promote, transfer, discipline or dismiss civil servants.
4. Control of Ministries: Ministries of finance and establishments have control over the ministries under the civil service. They control the expenditure, conditions of service, salaries and persons.
5. Press control: The press also helps to control the activities of the civil service. They criticize erring officers and this keeps them in check.
6. Judicial control: The court can try anybody for criminal charges. The public officers also have this in mind.
7. Hierarchical Control: The civil service is structured in a way that one cannot carry out the actions without letting his superior know.
8. Pressure Groups: They help to mount pressure on public officers to the line of other ministries.
9. Public Complaint Commission (Ombudsman): The function of this body is to receive and investigate complaints from the public about a public officer who has not performed according to laid down rules.

• The General Order: This is the regulation which outlines the condition of service and responsibilities of civil servants.

Reforms In The Civil Service (1988)

The government of Ibrahim Babangida embarked on the reform of the Civil Service Commission in 1988 in line with Dotun Philip’s review panel established in 1985. The major elements of the reform were:-

1. The ministers and not the permanent secretary is responsible for the policy and programmes of the ministry. He is accountable for his ministry’s actions.
2. The permanent secretary becomes Director General and his appointment is political. His tenure ended with the government that appointed him.
3. The civil service is professionally oriented with each civil servant spending his career in the ministry.
4. Each ministry is responsible for the appointment, discipline and promotion of civil servants under it, under the federal services guidelines.
5. The civil service is now empowered with various responsibilities.
6. The central bank and the Ministry of Budget and National Planning will be under the office of the presidency.
7. The officer of the head of the service ceases to exist.
8. Each ministry has the power to set up its personnel management board.

The Civil Service Commission

The Civil Service Commission is an independent body set up by the government with the responsibility of remitting workers into the service based on merit. The body also is in charge of the discipline, promotion and dismissal of workers. Either the president or governor appoints the chairman and members.

Composition Of The Civil Service Commission

The 1989 constitution of Nigeria provides for the establishment of the federal civil service commission. Section 51 states that its composition should consist of a president or chairman and a maximum of 9 members.

Functions Of The Civil Service Commission

1. Employment: The commission is empowered to remit highly qualified personnel into the civil service either by competitive examination or oral interview.
2. Promotion: The body is responsible for the promotion of workers from one salary scale to another when they are due to it.
3. Transfer: The transfer of civil servants from one ministry to another within the civil service is done by the commission.
4. Discipline: The commission is empowered to take action against any civil servant who goes against the rules of the general order.
5. Retirement: The civil servants who have reached the stipulated retirement age are retired by the commission.
6. Dismissal: the commission dismisses civil servants who are found to be corrupt.
7. Condition of Service: The commission states the terms and conditions of service, allowances and salaries of civil servants.
8. Advice: The commission offers advice to the government in the appointment of senior officers in departments and ministries.
9. Efficiency: Efficiency and integrity are the watchword of the civil service and the commission works towards it realization.

Ombudsman/Public Complaint Commission (PCC)

This is a government institution established to investigate and examine cases of injustice, corruption and unfair treatment by public officers against citizens. The Ombudsman, which is known as the Public Complaint Commission, was first introduced in Sweden in 1809. It was introduced in Nigeria in October 1975 by the military administration of General Murtala Mohammed.

Functions And Importance Of The Commission

1. To ensure that public officers discharge their duties in line with the laid down rules of the commission.
2. The body protects the rights and liberties of the citizens.
3. The body investigates cases of maladministration by any public officer.
4. The Ombudsman has the power to suggest some changes in the laws of the land.
5. It investigates cases of undesirable conditions and practices in public places like hospitals and prisons.
6. It is empowered to investigate any acts of corruption and nepotism.
7. It presents public officers and authorities that have violated the law and neglected their duties.
8. Cases of lost of documents and papers are investigated by the commission.
9. The commission offers help to citizens whose rights have been infringed upon to seek redress.

Limitations To The Powers Of The Ombudsman

1. The ombudsman does not have the power to enforce its investigations. It can only investigate and recommend.
2. It cannot investigate top government officials like Director-General, State Governor etc. It can only be involve in matters affecting junior workers.
3. It lacks the power to reverse court decisions.
4. The need to preserve state security and vital national interests hinders the commission access information and documents.
5. Lack of confidentiality of ombudsman constitutes a limitation.

Public Corporation

Government-Owned Corporations

A government-owned corporation is characterized as a business entity funded, operated, and owned by the government, utilizing taxpayer funds. The primary objective is not profit generation but the provision of essential services to the public. These entities are established through parliamentary acts, which outline their functions.

While government-owned corporations are owned by the government, their management is entrusted to boards of directors appointed by the government. Notable examples include the National Port Authority (N.P.A.), Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (N.N.P.C.), Power Holding Company of Nigeria (P.H.C.N.), among others.

Key Features Of Government-Owned Corporations

1. Complete government ownership.
2. Legal entity status due to special incorporation laws.
3. Monopoly in providing essential services, eliminating competition.
4. Personnel are contract workers, not civil servants.
5. Substantial capital investment during establishment.
6. Primary focus on service provision rather than profit.
7. Establishment mandated by an act of parliament.

Rationale For Establishing Government-Owned Corporations

1. Facilitation of cost-effective provision of essential services, given the substantial capital involved.
2. Creation of employment opportunities, requiring human labor for various services.
3. Undertaking social services with initial losses, which private individuals may be unwilling to bear.
4. Prevention of service duplication.
5. Ensuring government control in key economic sectors.
6. Contributing to rapid economic development.
7. Ensuring a consistent and regular supply of essential services.

Functions Of Government-Owned Corporations

1. Provision of essential services like transportation and electricity.
2. Employment generation.
3. Prevention of exploitation by a few individuals.
4. Revenue generation for the government.
5. Promotion of economic development.
6. Control of vital industries crucial to the nation’s well-being.
7. Enhancement of the standard of living through regular service provision.

Organizational Structure Of Government-Owned Corporations

The government appoints the Board of Directors, managing directors, chairman, and deputy chairman. Various divisions, such as finance, sales, production, administration, and transport and public relations, contribute to the overall goals of the corporation.

Distinctions Between Government-Owned Corporations And Civil Service

1. Government ministries provide services without a profit motive, while government-owned corporations are established to provide services.
2. Government-owned corporations are managed by boards of directors, while the civil service is managed by a minister advised by the Director General (Permanent Secretary).
3. The political head of a government-owned corporation is the chairman, while in a ministry, it is a minister.
4. Employees in government-owned corporations are termed public servants, whereas those in the civil service are known as civil servants.
5. The administrative head of a government-owned corporation is the General Manager, while in the civil service, it is the Director General or permanent secretary.
6. Government-owned corporations are set up for essential services, while ministries are established for policy formulation and execution.
7. Government-owned corporations make decisions more promptly than ministries.
8. Government-owned corporations can function without annual budgetary allocations, unlike ministries that depend on such allocations.
9. Workers in government-owned corporations enjoy better conditions of service than those in government ministries.

Control Mechanisms For Government-Owned Corporations

1. Legislative Control: Governed by acts of parliament, which include laws, auditing of accounts, summoning officials for explanations, and budgetary approval.
2. Ministerial Control: Involves the appointment and dissolution of boards, approval of loans and expenditures, auditing of accounts, and issuing directives.
3. Judicial Control: Courts can declare activities illegal if they violate established laws.
4. Financial Control: Involves senior officials appearing before the legislature to explain budgets, with annual reports subject to legislative verification.
5. Public Control: Members of the public exert control through criticism and feedback on goods and services provided by government-owned corporations.

Local Government

Local Government Definition

Local government refers to a governmental body established by law at the local level with the mandate to perform specific functions within a defined area. It possesses the authority to manage local political affairs and is typically the third tier of government. In Nigeria, local governments were instituted under the 1963 Republican constitution through acts of parliament, serving as conduits for federal government outreach to the grassroots.

Types Of Local Government

Professor Harold Anderfer categorized local government into four fundamental types:

1. French Type: An extension of the central government, where local government staff also function as federal government employees.
2. English Type: Possessing autonomy with some federal control, as adopted in Nigeria, without a distinct local economy.
3. Traditional Type: Indigenous and based on the leadership of a traditional ruler, devoid of Western or Eastern influences.
4. Communist Type: Prevalent in communist countries, aligning with socialist ideology, with no separate local economy.

Reasons For Local Government Creation

Local governments are established to:

1. Bring government closer to the grassroots.
2. Allow self-governance in accordance with local culture and traditions.
3. Serve as a link between the people and state/federal governments.
4. Facilitate even development across the country.
5. Act as representatives for policy implementation, law enforcement, and employment at the local level.
6. Provide essential services like electricity, roads, water, and healthcare.

Powers And Functions Of Local Government

Local governments are tasked with:

1. Construction and maintenance of public infrastructure.
2. Establishment and upkeep of markets, motor parks, public conveniences, and refuse disposal.
3. Tax collection, including radio and television licenses, rents, etc.
4. Provision and maintenance of primary schools.
5. Registration of vital events like births, deaths, and marriages.
6. Management of forests, naming of roads, and numbering of houses.
7. Establishment and maintenance of cemeteries, burial grounds, and homes for the destitute.
8. Development of agricultural and natural resources.
9. Enforcement of law and order through bye-laws and customary courts.

Sources Of Local Government Revenue

Local governments generate revenue through:

1. Federal government grants (10% of federally derived revenue).
2. Grants from state governments.
3. Loans from financial institutions.
4. Taxes on non-salary earners.
5. Local rates, license fees, court fines, and commercial ventures.

Control Of Local Government

Control mechanisms include:

1. Amendment of law by the national assembly.
2. Withholding of grants by the federal government.
3. Judicial control through courts declaring non-conforming bylaws null and void.
4. Ministerial control and periodic audits by government officials.
5. Public control through constructive criticisms from the served community.

Problems Of Local Governments

Challenges faced by local governments include:

1. Bribery, corruption, embezzlement, and misappropriation of funds.
2. Financial difficulties and poverty.
3. Shortage of untrained or ill-trained personnel.
4. Inadequate infrastructure.
5. Council size issues, favoritism, and nepotism.
6. Illiteracy among councilors.
7. Interference from the central government.

Solutions To Local Government Problems

Potential solutions involve:

1. Reducing central government control.
2. Employing honest and capable individuals for rate and levy collection.
3. Hiring qualified personnel.
4. Regular audits and prosecution for financial misappropriation.
5. Allocating more funds from the federation account.
6. Facilitating access to loans for local governments.
7. Providing regular in-service training and seminars for local government workers.

Pre-Colonial Administration/Political System In Nigeria

Pre-Colonial Governance In Hausa/Fulani Region

Background Of The Hausa States

In the 19th century, the Fulani took political control of the Habe (Hausa) states following the jihad led by Othman Dan Fodio. The establishment of the Sokoto caliphate marked a significant centralization of political power.

Othman Dan Fodio introduced the Emir system to govern the caliphate, with Sokoto and Gwandu serving as dual headquarters. Emirs pledged allegiance to Othman Dan Fodio and his representatives in Sokoto and Gwandu.

Political Organization

The Emirate: The caliphate was divided into emirates, each led by an authoritative Emir with extensive powers. The Emir enacted laws and maintained order based on Islamic principles, aided by advisers, including the Waziri (head official), Galadima (capital overseer), Madawaki (army commander), Dogari (treasury overseer), Sarkin Ruwa (river fishing official), Sarkin Fada (palace workers’ head), Sarkin Pawa (butchers’ head), Yari (prison overseer).

Legislative Body: Sharia, the Islamic law, governed the emirate, regarded as the supreme law of God.

Executive Authority: While the Emir had advisers, his authority was authoritarian, allowing him to accept or reject their counsel.

Judicial System: Sharia laws guided the Alkali judges, handling civil cases, with minor issues delegated to village heads. The Emir decided criminal and land cases within the framework of Sharia laws.

District Administration: Each emirate was subdivided into districts, each headed by an Emir-appointed official called Hakimi.

Pre-Colonial Governance In Igbo Land

The Igbo system lacked a central authority, embracing a decentralized, participatory, and direct democratic approach.

Features Of Igbo Political System

1. Decentralized and Segmental: Power was shared among different groups, fostering general participation in governance.

2. Republican: No hereditary rights to political office existed, promoting equality and social justice.

3. Democratic: The principles of equality and social justice prevailed, with no centralized political ruler.

4. Women’s Role: Women, through groups like Umuada, played a significant role in governance.

Structural Organization Of The Igbo Political System

1. Village Administration: Villages formed the political unit, with families comprising the council of elders. The Ofor titleholders, led by the Okpara, presided over elder meetings.

2. Executive Function: Village affairs were discussed by the council of elders, with every adult having the right to contribute.

3. Legislative Power: Villagers made laws themselves, and age grades could propose laws accepted by the elders.

4. Judicial System: Family heads settled disputes, while serious cases were referred to the council of elders and the Okpara.

5. Age Grade System: Young men belonging to the same age group were actively involved in village administration, performing public duties.

6. Ozor Titleholders: Wealthy individuals with the Ozor title joined the council of elders to deliberate on community issues.

7. Women’s Association: Women played a crucial role in dispute resolution, serving as a powerful pressure group and imparting values to the younger generation. They stood against corruption and oppression.

Pre-Colonial Political System in Yoruba Land:

The Old Oyo Empire, a vast realm divided into provinces, operated under a monarchical government akin to other African kingdoms and empires. The system, led by the Alafin, exhibited distinctive features.

Features of Yoruba Pre-colonial Political System:

1. The political system’s scale was extensive.
2. It was a constitutional monarchy with decentralization, ensuring the Oba did not wield autocratic power.
3. Checks and balances prevented Oba from abusing authority.
4. The Oba ratified decisions made by chiefs.
5. The absence of a taxation system.

Political Administration:

1. Political Head: The Alafin, chosen by the Oyomesi and hereditary kingmakers, led the empire. The Bashorun and Oyomesi played vital roles.
2. The Aremo: The Alafin’s eldest son assisted in administration but couldn’t succeed his father.
3. The Oyomesi: Seven hereditary kingmakers, led by the Bashorun, installed or removed an Alafin and assisted in administration.
4. Provincial Governors: (Bale or Oba) Ruled provinces, collecting tributes and paying homage to the Alafin.
5. The Army: Headed by Are-ona kankafo, claimed to commit suicide in case of defeat.
6. The Ogboni Society: A secret society of diviners, serving as the third organ of government, maintaining cultural duties and checking Oyomesi’s excesses.
7. The Three Eunuchs: Involved in administration, including Osi Efa for political affairs, Oni Efa for judiciary, and Otun Efa for religious duties.
8. The Empty Calabash: Used symbolically to reject an unconstitutional Alafin, leading to the expectation of the Alafin’s suicide.

Kingship: The Oyomesi chose a new ruler from the royal families, and ascension was not hereditary.

Functions of Traditional Rulers in Pre-Colonial Political System:

1. Supreme rulers in communities.
2. Legislative functions, ensuring defence, religious roles, administration heads, safeguarding lives, communal wealth sharing, political symbols, and law and order maintenance.

Functions and Powers of the Council of Elders:

1. Advised paramount chiefs.
2. maintained law and order, and acted as decision-makers.
3. Performed religious functions.
4. Installed and deposed paramount chiefs.
5. Checked paramount chiefs’ activities.
6. Decided on community warfare.

Functions of Secret Societies:

1. Enforced law and order.
2. Performed military and police functions.
3. Served as a link to ancestors.
4. Protected members, educated and conducted rituals.
5. Agents of socialization.

Functions of Age Grade:

1. Executed warfare.
2. Undertook social labor.
3. Performed socialization and ceremonial functions.
4. Defended communities against internal and external aggression.
5. Checked misuse of power by permanent chiefs.

Colonial Administration

Definition Of Colonialism In Africa

Colonialism can be characterized as the imposition of a more advanced culture upon a less developed one, supported by expansionist and economic endeavours. Another definition portrays it as the coercive governance of one country by another, signifying the extension of political control from a dominant nation over a weaker one. Often synonymous with imperialism, colonialism entails the political dominance and economic exploitation of the weaker nation by the stronger one.

Historical Background

Britain’s initial endeavour to establish a formal government in Nigeria took place in 1900, coinciding with the industrial revolution in Europe during the late 19th century. The competitive quest for finished goods among European powers, including Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, led to the scramble and partition of Africa. The Berlin West Africa conference of 1884-1885 witnessed the allocation of African lands to European countries as colonies.

The first formal British government in Nigeria, established in 1900, comprised three distinct administrative areas: the Colony of Lagos, the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, and the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria.

In May 1906, the Colony of Lagos and the Southern Protectorate merged to form the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria. Lord Frederick Luggard further amalgamated Lagos and the Southern Protectorate with the Northern Protectorate in 1914, creating a unified colony called Nigeria.

Reasons For Colonialism

Economic Reasons:

1. Raw Materials: The European industrialists, fueled by the industrial revolution, sought abundant raw materials for their industries, leading them to Africa, particularly Nigeria.
2. Market: Europe, seeking new markets beyond its borders, identified Africa as a potential market for excess products.

Social Reasons:

1. Settlement: Colonies were perceived as suitable places to accommodate surplus populations.

Cultural Reasons: Colonialism was viewed as a means of civilizing the perceived primitive black populations.

Humanitarian Reasons: Colonizers claimed to be halting slave trade and inter-ethnic wars in West Africa.

Religious Reasons: European ventures aimed at converting Africans to Christianity.

Prestige Motive: Colonialism was deemed a way to enhance the prestige of metropolitan centers like Britain and France.

Political Reasons: Europeans aimed to extend their spheres of influence and rule over African territories.

Explorative Motive: European explorers ventured into Africa to discover various human and natural resources.

Features Of Colonial Administration

1. Central Administration: Headed by the appointed Governor, responsible for both legislative and executive councils.
2. Native Administration: Instituted a system of native administration through the indirect rule system in protectorates, provinces, and districts.

Classification Of British Colonies In West Africa

1. Crown Colony: Established through military conquest, owned by the British Crown (e.g., Lagos colony).
2. Protectorate: A territory under British government protection against other European conquests (e.g., Northern and Southern protectorates of Nigeria).
3. Trust Territory: Former German colonies (e.g., Cameroon, Togo, and Tanzania) controlled by Allied powers after Germany’s defeat.

Indirect Rule

Indirect rule is characterized by the British governing their colonies through the utilization of local chiefs, intermediaries, and adherence to traditional laws and customs, while British officials oversee administration. Sir Lord Frederick Luggard, considered the ‘father of indirect rule,’ introduced this system in Nigeria, citing it as a necessity.

Features of Indirect Rule:

1. Utilization of existing traditional administrative systems.
2. Recognition of the status of traditional rulers.
3. Implementation of traditional laws and customs.
4. Supervision by British officials.
5. Cost-effectiveness in administration.
6. Collection of taxes.
7. Use of native courts for justice.
8. Deployment of native police and prisons.

Reasons for the Introduction of Indirect Rule:

1. Scarcity of personnel due to the harsh conditions in West Africa.
2. Limited funding from Britain.
3. Success in other regions like India and Uganda, leading to the belief it could work in Nigeria.
4. Economic efficiency by saving costs for maintaining officials.
5. Preservation of existing traditions.
6. Challenges posed by vast areas, language barriers, poor transportation, and communication.

Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria:

1. Comprising the centralized Sokoto Caliphate, Borno Empire, and smaller pagan areas.
2. Successful due to preservation of culture, centralized power, illiteracy, religious beliefs, existing tax system, and promotion of traditional rulers.

Indirect Rule in Western Nigeria:

1. Utilized Obas but faced challenges.
2. Limited powers of Obas, educated population, diverse religions, absence of centralized administration, elite boycott, and attempts to restore authority to Alafin of Oyo.

Indirect Rule in Eastern Nigeria:

1. Failed due to absence of traditional rulers, appointment of rejected warrant chiefs, decentralized political system, absence of taxation, religious differences, educated population protest, and boycott by elites.

Merits of Indirect Rule:

1. Cost-effectiveness.
2. Preservation of native laws and cultures.
3. Development of political activities.
4. Reduced administrative costs.
5. Facilitated tax collection.
6. Trained traditional rulers.
7. Curbed some harmful practices introduced by Europeans.

Demerits of Indirect Rule:

1. Native rulers as puppets of British officers.
2. Alienation of educated elites.
3. Inability to prosecute traditional rulers for misconduct.
4. Bribery and corruption due to poor conditions of service.
5. Abuse of democratic rights.
6. Encouragement of tribalism and sectionalism.
7. Viewed as an imposition.

French Colonial Administration

Historical Context

In the administration of West African colonies, France unified them into a loose federation headquartered in Dakar, Senegal. Dakar housed the appointed governor general, who oversaw the federation. Driven by the belief in the superiority of French civilization and the perceived inferiority of African civilization, France implemented the Assimilation policy.

The Assimilation Policy

The Assimilation policy aimed at imposing French culture on West African culture, superseding traditional ways of life, traditions, customs, beliefs, and institutions with advanced French counterparts. This policy was predominantly applied in the four communes: Dakar, Goree, Rufisque, and Saint Louis.

Characteristics Of The French Colonial System (Assimilation)

1. Centralized administration
2. Direct rule
3. Division of West Africans into citizens and subjects
4. Restricted education with few schools established
5. Central administration based in Paris
6. Absence of political parties and associations
7. Non-recognition of chieftaincy institutions
8. Disregard for African culture
9. Arbitrary arrests and imprisonment of Africans without trial

Causes Of The Failure Of The Assimilation Policy

1. Cultural differences between the French and West Africans
2. Reduction of traditional chiefs’ powers
3. Financial burden on the people of France
4. Opposition from French intellectuals against equality with Africans
5. Success of the indirect rule system in Nigeria prompting a need for flexibility
6. Impacts of the Second World War leading to the abandonment of assimilation
7. Unpopularity and objections due to forced labor and imprisonment without trial
8. Strong attachment of the African people to their culture
9. Division of Africans into two classes contributing to the failure of indirect rule

Shift To The Policy Of Association

In response to the failure of assimilation, France abandoned the policy and adopted the Association policy, resembling the indirect rule system.

Features Of The Policy Of Association

1. Respect and recognition of people’s culture
2. Abolishment of forced labor
3. Recognition of traditional political institutions
4. Abolishment of dual citizenship
5. Permission for freedom of political association
6. Granting each colony the freedom to develop autonomously
7. Greater use of French personnel than Africans

Comparison Between British And French Colonial Administration

1. Britain employed an indirect rule system, while France adopted direct rule.
2. Britain did not federate its West African colonies, whereas France did.
3. Britain showed respect for local languages and cultures, unlike France.
4. Britain recognized and respected traditional rulers; France did not.
5. Britain encouraged mass education, whereas France restricted access to education.
6. Britain allowed political associations in its colonies; France opposed and suppressed them.
7. British indirect rule allowed each colony to develop independently; France did not.
8. While Britain permitted the development of parliaments and assemblies in its colonies, France did not allow such institutions.

Colonialism In Africa

Positive Impacts Of Colonialism

1. Military and Technical Assistance: Former French colonies, among others, received military and technical support from their colonial rulers.
2. Development of Political Parties: Colonialism played a role in fostering the growth of political parties, facilitating the struggle for political independence.
3. Common Language: Colonial influence led to the development of common languages, such as English and French, in respective colonial territories.
4. Uniform Civil Service: The civil service systems in these regions were structured in alignment with the British and French models.
5. Common Legal System: Colonial rule contributed to the establishment of a shared legal system across colonial territories.
6. Infrastructure Development: Facilities like roads, railways, and electricity were developed to enhance administrative efficiency.
7. Emergence of New Elites: The colonial era saw the rise of a new elite class based on education and political exposure.
8. Exposure to Western Education: Colonialism granted access to Western education, expanding opportunities for Africans.
9. Common Central Bank: With the exception of Guinea, former French territories in West Africa had a shared Central bank issuing a common currency.

Negative Impacts Of Colonialism

1. Economic Dependence and Exploitation: African labor contributed to the wealth exploited by colonial powers, leading to the impoverishment of West Africa.
2. Means of Communication: Infrastructure was primarily constructed for resource extraction rather than benefitting the local population.
3. Introduction of the Slave Trade: Colonial powers played a role in introducing the slave trade, resulting in the deportation and humiliation of African leaders.
4. Colonial Education: Education was designed to train Africans for subordinate roles in local administration and European-owned capitalist firms.
5. Erosion of Traditional Rulers’ Power: Traditional rulers lost real authority, becoming colonial puppets accountable to the colonial government.
6. Cash Crop Focus: Colonial powers prioritized the production of cash crops like cocoa, cotton, and palm produce to serve their economic interests.
7. Division of Unity: Colonial rule divided West African countries into English and French-speaking regions, creating challenges for regional unity, exemplified by issues within ECOWAS.

Nationalism In West Africa

Nationalism in Africa can be defined as the collective efforts of Africans to resist or repudiate colonial rule. It encompasses the love and pride that a population has for its country, as well as the aspirations of a racial group to establish an independent nation. Additionally, nationalism manifests as a sense of unity among social groups striving to shape their destiny, control their environment, and defend against rival groups.

Characteristics of Nationalism Before the Second World War:

1. Western Education: The adoption of Western education provided West Africa with a common language to confront colonialism.
2. World Depression: The economic downturn resulting from the First World War led to widespread hardship, fostering agitation for self-government.
3. Economic Exploitation: The monopoly of trade in West Africa by European companies and their exploitative practices fueled the growth of nationalism.
4. Lack of Educational Facilities: Insufficient funding for missionary education hindered the development of human resources, as education was primarily aimed at basic literacy.
5. High Cost of Living: Soaring prices of goods and services, causing a decline in living standards, intensified the call for self-government.
6. Emergence of Political Parties: Political parties advocating for increased participation in the political process contributed to the rise of nationalism.
7. Religion: Christian missionaries, with their disregard for African traditions and cultures, played a significant role in fueling nationalism in West Africa.
8. Heavy Taxes: The imposition of substantial taxes on Africans and the control of funds derived from taxation played a pivotal role in igniting nationalist activities.
9. Racial Discrimination: Discrimination in the civil service based on race contributed to the growth of nationalism in West Africa.

Factors contributing to the ascension and expansion of nationalist movements

External factors

1. The Atlantic Charter: Published after World War II, this charter asserted the right of all people to choose their form of government, encouraging nationalist movements by aligning with the American stance favouring decolonization.

2. Anti-colonial Stance of the U.N.O: The United Nations Organization took a critical stance against colonialism and imperialism, supporting nations seeking independence. This bolstered the spirit of nationalism in West Africa, particularly in response to the assistance received.

3. British Labour Party: The opposition of the British Labour Party to the conservative party’s colonial policies influenced the growth of nationalism in Nigeria.

4. Independence of Other Countries: The independence of India in 1947 and Ghana in 1957 heightened the aspirations of Nigerian nationalists for self-rule.

5. Pan-African Leaders and Organizations: Influential figures such as W.E.B. Du Bois, George Padmore, and organizations like the West Africa Union Students Union and Negro World Movement advocated against racial discrimination and colonialism, inspiring nationalist sentiments.

6. Loss of British Prestige: Britain’s defeat in World War II diminished its global prestige, impacting the perception of colonialism and encouraging nationalist movements.

7. World War II: The war debunked the myth of white supremacy, challenging the notion of racial superiority.

8. Emergence of Super Powers: The rise of the U.S.A and U.S.S.R as superpowers post-World War II provided support and encouragement for nationalist activities in Nigeria and West Africa.

9. Colonial Posture of the United Nations Organization: The United Nations’ position on colonialism further contributed to the rise of nationalist movements.

Internal Factors

1. Racial Discrimination: European mistreatment of Nigerians in the civil service fueled nationalist sentiments in West Africa after 1945.

2. Introduction of the Elective Principle in 1922: The selective application of this principle, favoring only Lagos and Calabar, disenfranchised many Nigerians, sparking nationalist growth.

3. Return of Ex-service Men: West African soldiers returning from World War II brought back ideals for achieving freedom, akin to European nations.

4. Activities of Educated Elites: Figures like Nnamdi Azikiwe, H.O. Davies, Herbert Macaulay, Obafemi Awolowo, Kwame Nkrumah, and Jomo Kenyatta mobilized the masses for independence.

5. Establishment of Political Parties and Newspapers: Political parties and newspapers, such as the West Africa Pilot and Lagos Daily News, played pivotal roles in the decolonization process.

6. Trade Unions: Militant unions, like the railway workers union led by Michael Imodu, supported nationalist leaders through strikes for better conditions of service.

7. Poor Prices: Unfavorable prices for African produce under colonial rule contributed to nationalist sentiments.

8. Christianity and Establishment of Schools: The realization through education that all men are created equal by God fueled nationalist sentiments.

Factors Contributing To Slow Nationalist Activities In French West Africa Colonies

1. Policy of Assimilation: The policy granted African elites equal rights, dissuading agitation or revolt as the system benefited them.

2. Indignant Policy: The threat to African liberties, including arbitrary arrests and imprisonment without trial, inhibited nationalist activities.

3. Absence of Political Parties: The lack of political parties hindered the expression of political views on governing activities.

4. Granting of Citizenship: France’s practice of granting Africans from its colonies French citizenship, with associated privileges, discouraged the need for nationalist movements.

5. Freedom of the Press: Government censorship of the press limited avenues for criticizing government policies.

Effects Of Nationalism On Nigeria

1. The nationalist movement led to the formation of political parties and political education (e.g., NNDP, NCNC, AG).

2. It prompted the introduction of newspapers (e.g., West African Pilot, Lagos Daily News).

3. It culminated in the independence of Nigeria on October 1, 1960.

4. It heightened awareness of political and fundamental rights among Nigerians.

5. Nationalist movements led to constitutional development and change in Nigeria.

6. It projected the image of Nigeria and West Africans to the outside world.

7. It compelled colonial rulers to modify their racial discrimination in the civil service.

Constitutional Development In Nigeria

The Nigeria Council Of 1914

Established in 1914 following the amalgamation by Lord Lugard, the Nigeria Council comprised 24 official and 12 unofficial members, including both European and Nigerian Traditional Rulers. Functioning as an advisory body devoid of legislative powers, it served as a platform for expressing public opinion.

In 1922, Sir Hugs Clifford assumed the role of governor in Nigeria, succeeding Lord Lugard, and subsequently dismantled the Nigerian Council. In its place, a Legislative Council for Southern Nigeria was instituted, while the governance of the North was determined by proclamations issued by the Governor.

The National Congress Of British West Africa (Ncbwa)

Founded in 1920 by Joseph Casely Hayford of the Gold Coast (Ghana) and Dr. Akinwade Savage of Nigeria, the National Congress of British West Africa included members from the West African Colonies of Ghana, Gambia, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone. Advocating for increased African involvement in administration, the judiciary, and other critical areas of governance, the Congress opposed discrimination and championed the use of elective principles. Additionally, they called for advancements in education (university) and improvements in the medical sector.

Effects Of The Ncbwa

1. Africans gained representation in the legislative council through elections.
2. The introduction of elective principles occurred in Nigeria in 1922, Sierra Leone in 1924, and the Gold Coast in 1925.
3. Higher educational institutions were established in Nigeria, the Gold Coast, and Sierra Leone, including institutions like Fourah Bay College, Yuba College, and Achimota College.
4. The NCBWA contributed to the development of newspapers in British West Africa, such as the Daily News of 1925 in Nigeria and The Morning Star in the Gold Coast.
5. The introduction of elective principles led to the emergence of political parties, exemplified by the NNDP in Nigeria and NCSL in Sierra Leone.

The Clifford’s Constitution Of 1922

Features of Clifford Constitution:

1. Secretary of State for Colonies:
2. A Cabinet Minister in Britain held the position of Secretary of State for Colonies.
3. The colonial Governors reported to this official.

2. Head of State: Governor Hugh Clifford served as the Head of State, representing the Queen of England.

3. The Executive Council: Comprised of an all-European Council; no Nigerians were members.

4. The Legislative Council:
5. Membership totalled 46, with 27 officials and 19 unofficial members.
6. Ten Nigerians were part of the council, with four elected representatives (three from Lagos, one from Calabar).
7. The remaining six were appointed by the governor to represent other parts of the country, excluding the Northern Protectorate.

5. Proclamation: The North was governed by a proclamation from the Governor.

6. Elective Principle: Elections into the Legislative Council were conducted for the first time.

7. Political Activities: Witnessed political activities and the formation of political parties, especially in Lagos and Calabar (e.g., The NNDP of Herbert Macaulay).

Merits of Clifford’s Constitution:

1. Allowed political activities and the formation of political parties in Lagos and Calabar, such as the NNDP.

2. Establishment of newspapers to boost political activities.

3. Introduction of the elective principle, enabling Nigerians to elect representatives for the first time into the Legislative Council.

4. Formation of a new Legislative Council for the colony and Protectorate of southern Nigeria (excluding the Northern Protectorate).

5. Inspired nationalist activities, paving the way for self-government.

6. Served as Nigeria’s first-ever constitution.

Demerits of Clifford’s Constitution:

1. Disenfranchised the majority of Nigerians.

2. Europeans dominated both the Legislative and Executive Councils.

3. The elective principle only applied to the Legislative Council, not the Executive Council.

4. Unofficial members elected into the Legislative Council were illiterates.

5. The governor possessed veto power over issues in both the executive and legislative councils.

6. Fostered sectionalism, being applicable only to the South, excluding the North.

Features of Richard’s Constitution:

1. The Executive Council: Richard served as the president of the council, dominated by Europeans.

2. The Legislative Council:
3. Government was the president, based in Lagos.
4. Included 44 members, with 28 majority non-officials and 16 minority officials.
5. Different regions had varying non-official representation.
6. Introduced a limited franchise for voters in Lagos and Calabar.

3. House of Assembly or Regional House of Assembly: Assembly members elected by native authorities; regional assembly members elected members of the Central Legislative Council.

4. Elective Principle: Retained the elective principle with a limited franchise.

5. Legislature: Brought the North and South together under one legislature.

6. Dual Membership: Members of the Central Legislative Council were also members of the Regional Council.

7. Regionalism: Created regions out of the former three provinces.

Merits of Richard’s Constitution:

1. Fostered national unity by bringing the North and South together.

2. Nigerians formed the majority in the legislature in an unofficial capacity.

3. Introduced a bi-cameral legislature in the North, promoting bi-cameralism in Nigeria.

4. Successfully introduced regionalism in Nigeria.

5. Laid the foundation for Federalism and a Federal Constitution in Nigerian political structure.

6. Integrated the North and South for registration and unity purposes.

Demerits of Richard’s Constitution:

1. The executive council was still dominated by Europeans.

2. Divided the country into three unequal parts, fostering tribalism and sectionalism.

3. Limited franchise and male adult suffrage disenfranchised many Nigerians.

4. Introduced regionalism, causing persistent problems in Nigerian politics.

5. Governor’s veto power made a mockery of non-official majority in the legislative council.

6. Limited franchise to Lagos and Calabar while disenfranchising other significant towns.

7. Nationalists rejected the constitution due to lack of consultation with Nigerians.

8. Gave the government autocratic and dictatorial powers over legislative and executive councils.

9. Traditional chiefs were perceived as puppets due to the reinforcement of the system of Indirect rule.

Constitutional Development

The Macpherson Constitution Of 1951

In response to the weaknesses identified in Richard’s Constitution, exacerbated by anti-colonial activities and the erosion of white superiority, a new constitution was introduced. Sir John Macpherson assumed the role of Governor of Nigeria in 1948 and undertook a review of the 1946 Constitution, culminating in the Macpherson Constitution of 1951 after constitutional conferences were held throughout the country.

Features Of The Macpherson Constitution

1. The Central Legislative Council: Renamed the House of Representatives, with the Governor serving as president, 6 ex-officio members, 136 representatives from regional houses, and 6 special members nominated by the Governor.
2. The Central Executive Council: Rebranded as the Council of Ministers, headed by the Governor as president, consisting of 6 official members and 12 ministers (4 representing each region).
3. The Regional Legislature: Bi-cameral House of Assembly and Chiefs for the Northern and Western regions, while the Eastern region had jurisdiction over specific issues such as local matters, native courts, and health.
4. Regional Executive Council: Each region had its executive council with the Lieutenant Governor as president, comprising 5 official members and 9 ministers.
5. Lagos was part of the Western region, and the three provinces were renamed Western, Eastern, and Northern regions. Chief Commissioners were renamed Lieutenant Governors.

Merits Of The Macpherson Constitution

1. Involvement of Nigerians in constitution-making through constitutional conferences.
2. Introduction of the House of Representatives as a central legislative body.
3. Granting more powers and autonomy to the regions.
4. Facilitating the realization of self-government, discussed in the 1953 London constitutional conferences.
5. Increase in elected majorities in both central and regional legislatures.
6. Promotion of federalism by dividing powers between the central and regional governments.

Demerits Of The Macpherson Constitution

1. Absence of provisions for the positions of prime minister and premier.
2. Limited ministerial responsibilities, as ministers primarily acted as spokesmen in the legislature.
3. Excessive powers vested in the Governor.
4. Restricted legislative powers for regions, requiring approval for their laws to operate.
5. Lack of majority control by a single party in the House of Representatives, leading to policy uncertainties.
6. Failure to grant political independence as demanded by nationalists.

The Constitutional Conference Of 1953

The deficiencies of the Macpherson Constitution prompted the need for a new constitution, leading to the 1953 Constitutional Conference. The secretary of state for the colonies, Oliver Littleton, announced the decision to redraw the Nigerian Constitution for greater autonomy on May 21, 1953. The conference, held between July 30 and August 22, 1953, resulted in agreements that established a federal system of government, renamed regional Lieutenant Governors as Governors, and shared legislative powers between federal, state, and federating units.

Lagos Constitutional Conference Of 1954

Convened on January 19, 1954, to address unresolved issues, the conference reached agreements on allocating financial resources based on derivation principles, granting autonomy to southern Cameroon, regionalizing the judiciary and police force, and maintaining southern Cameroons as part of the Nigerian federation with its legislature.

Lyttleton Constitution Of 1954

Lyttleton Constitution Highlights

The shortcomings of MacPherson’s constitution led to two constitutional conferences in 1953 and 1954, held in London and Lagos, resulting in the Lyttleton Constitution of October 1954. Key features and significant changes introduced by the Lyttleton Constitution include:

1. First Federal Constitution: It marked Nigeria’s adoption of its initial federal constitution.

2. Governor Titles: The lieutenant governors of the regions were now addressed as Governors, with the overall head designated as the Governor-General of the federation.

3. Creation of Regional Premiers: The establishment of the office of regional premiers was a notable development.

4. Regionalization: Public service, marketing boards, and the judiciary were regionalized.

5. Law-Making Powers: Regional legislatures were endowed with the authority to enact laws.

6. Reduction in Numbers: There was a decrease in the number of officials and appointed members in central and regional legislatures and executive councils.

7. No Prime Ministerial Office: The constitution did not provide for the office of the prime minister.

8. Powers Division: It clearly outlined the division of powers between the central and regional governments.

9. Revenue Sharing Revision: The revenue-sharing formula underwent a revision.

10. Southern Cameroon Provision: Administrative and legislative provisions were granted to Southern Cameroon.

Significant Provisions Of The Lyttleton Constitution

1. Federal House of Representatives: A central legislative body with 184 members elected on a single-member constituency basis.

2. Federal Council of Ministers: Comprising the Governor-General, official members, regional ministers, and one from Southern Cameroon.

3. Regional Executive Councils: Premiers were appointed leaders of the majority party, with regional governors presiding over executive meetings.

4. Regional Legislatures: Retained bi-cameral features for Northern and Western Assemblies and a unicameral legislature for the East.

5. Division of Powers: Powers were divided between central and regional governments through exclusive, concurrent, and residual lists.

Demerits Of Lyttleton’s Constitution

1. No Prime Ministerial Provision: Failure to establish the office of the prime minister.

2. Single Chamber: Lack of a second chamber in the Federal Legislative House.

3. Party Leaders Exclusion: Major political party leaders were not part of the Council of Ministers.

4. Imbalance Addressing Failure: The constitution did not rectify the North-South population imbalance.

5. Uniform Electoral System Absence: No provision for a uniform electoral system.

6. Veto Power: The Governor-General and regional governors retained veto powers.

7. Strengthening Regions: Regionalization of the public service empowered regions over the central government.

Merits Of Lyttleton’s Constitution

1. Federal Structure Introduction: Pioneered the federal structure in Nigeria.

2. Establishment of Speaker and Deputy Speaker Offices: Introduced these positions in federal and regional legislatures.

3. Direct Elections: Instituted direct elections in federal and regional legislatures.

4. Ministerial Leadership: Ministers became heads of departments.

5. Civil Service and Judicial Administration Dualism: Created dual civil service and judicial administration.

6. Regional Separation: Distinct recognition of Lagos and Southern Cameroon from the West and East.

7. Status Elevation: Elevated the titles of Governor to Governor-General and Lieutenant to Governors.

8. Independence Preparation: Effectively prepared Nigeria for eventual independence.

9. Empowered Regional Legislatures: Granted substantial law-making powers to regional legislatures.

10. Clear Powers Division: Provided a clear-cut division of powers between the central and regional governments.

Constitutional Development 2

London Constitutional Conference

Convened to address concerns related to Lyttleton’s 1954 constitution, the 1957 Constitutional Conference resulted in significant decisions:

1. Immediate self-government for the Eastern and Western regions post-conference.
2. Northern region’s independence by 1959.
3. Establishment of the Prime Minister’s office for the federation.
4. Introduction of a House of Chiefs in the Eastern region, mirroring Northern and Western regions.
5. Formation of a bicameral legislature with the creation of a Senate in the Central Legislature.
6. Designation of Southern Cameroon as a region with the appointment of a premier.
7. Expansion of the Federal House of Representatives from 184 to 320 members.
8. Universal adult suffrage for Federal and regional legislatures in the East, West, Lagos, and Southern Cameroon; adult male suffrage for the northern legislature.
9. Commission of inquiry for each region’s affairs.
10. Governor-General’s appointment of an ad-hoc committee to divide the country into single-member constituencies.
11. Regional premiers appointed from the majority representation in regional house assemblies.
12. Governor-General to appoint a prime minister from the party securing a majority in the House of Representatives.

Effects And Implementation Of The 1957 Decisions

1. Eastern and Western regions achieved self-government on August 8, 1957.
2. On September 2, 1957, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Deputy Leader of NPC, became the Prime Minister.
3. Southern Cameroon became a separate region with its premier.
4. Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa formed a coalition National government comprising NPC, NCNC, and AG.
5. Ex-officio British officials, except the Governor-General, ceased to be executive council members.
6. Withdrawal of reserved and veto powers of the Governor-General.
7. Willinks Commission formed to address minority fears.

Willinks Commission Of Inquiry

Examined minority fears, with recommendations including:

1. Inclusion of a bill of rights in the constitution for minority human rights protection.
2. No alteration of the boundary between the northern and western regions.
3. Federal Police Force to safeguard minority rights.
4. Non-Muslims in the north given the option of trial in non-Muslim courts.
5. Establishment of special development boards for Niger Delta areas.
6. Majority parties required to gain minority support.
7. Joint federal and regional government management of a special minorities commission.

Lagos Constitutional Conference Of 1958

The final pre-independence conference in 1960 made key recommendations:

1. Nigeria’s independence on October 1, 1960.
2. Consideration of state creation to address minority concerns.
3. Plebiscites on February 11 and 12, 1961.
4. Northern region’s self-independence in 1959.
5. Acceptance of Willinks’ recommendation against state creation, opting for fundamental human rights entrenchment in the 1960 constitution.
6. Approval of the constitution’s amendment process and boundary adjustment procedures.

Independence Constitution Of 1960

Features and provisions of the 1960 independence constitution:

The 1960 Independence Constitution maintained the federal structure introduced by Lyttleton’s 1954 Constitution. Governors-General assumed the role of Ceremonial Head of State on behalf of the Queen of England. The parliamentary system of government in Nigeria was adopted, featuring a bicameral legislature for both federal and regional House of Assemblies.

Executive powers were vested in the Prime Minister and Premiers, with the Senate holding authority over financial and other bills. Dual governance powers were established at both the federal and regional levels. The constitution enshrined the Fundamental Human Rights of citizens and provided a thoughtful approach to constitutional amendments. Federal legislatures were empowered to enact laws during emergencies, and detailed provisions for Nigerian citizenship were outlined. The appointment of Supreme Court and high court judges followed a process advised by the Judicial Service Commission.

Advantages or Achievements of the Independence Constitution:

The adoption of the Independence Constitution marked the successful conclusion of the nationalistic struggle. It symbolized the definitive end of colonialism that had persisted in Nigeria since the late 19th century. Nigeria attained sovereign statehood, enabling it to pursue international recognition by joining the UN and the Commonwealth. The country engaged in trade relations with other nations, enhancing foreign trade and raising living standards. Independence led to increased employment in the civil service and other sectors of the economy. Nigerians established a Public Service Commission, and a bicameral legislative system was instituted at both federal and regional government levels. Accountability in revenue utilization was introduced through the Ministry of Finance’s activities.

Disadvantages and Weaknesses of the 1960 Independence Constitution:

The constitution maintained the Queen of England as the titular or ceremonial head of state, represented by the Governor-General. The Privy Council in Britain remained the highest court of appeal for Nigeria. Senate members were not directly elected but appointed by regional governments. The constitution lacked clarity on the process and position for creating states, leading to political tensions during the establishment of the Midwest region. It was a constitution designed by foreign entities, overseen by departing British colonialists

The First Republican Constitution Of 1963

Characteristics Of The 1963 Republican Constitution

The Republic of Nigeria adopted the 1963 Republican Constitution, ushering in significant modifications. The key features of this constitution include:

1. Establishment of a Republican System: The constitution officially established a republican form of government in Nigeria.

2. Removal of the Queen as Head of State: The Queen of England was no longer the head of state; instead, the president assumed the role of Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.

3. Presidential Election Process: The president was to be elected through a secret ballot by the joint session of the two houses of the Federal Assembly.

4. Supreme Court as Highest Court: The Supreme Court replaced the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal in Nigeria.

5. Strengthening of Fundamental Human Rights: The constitution strengthened the protection of Fundamental Human Rights.

6. Changes in Judicial Appointment: The Judicial Service Commission was abolished, and the prime minister became the sole appointee of judges.

7. Strengthening of the Prime Minister’s Office: With the departure of the Governor General, the Prime Minister’s office was strengthened.

8. Regional Governance Changes: The office of the Governors at the regional level ceased to exist, and the premiers assumed total executive government powers.

9. Political Control over the Director of Public Prosecution: The director of public prosecution was brought under political control.

10. Increase in Parliamentary Membership: The membership of the Senate and the House of Representatives was increased from 44 to 56 and 305 to 312, respectively.

11. Federal Government Emergency Powers: The federal government assumed some emergency powers over the legislative arm.

12. Supreme Court’s Judicial Review Authority: The Supreme Court was granted the power of judicial review.

13. State Creation Process: The constitution outlined the process for the creation of states and boundary adjustments.

Advantages Of The 1963 Republican Constitution

1. Elected President as Head of State: The elected president replaced the British Monarch as the head of state.

2. Homegrown Constitution: The constitution was autochthonous, signifying that it originated and was based within the country.

3. Supreme Court as Final Court of Appeal: The Supreme Court became the ultimate court of appeal in the nation.

4. Full Guarantee of Citizens’ Rights: The constitution ensured the complete guarantee and entrenchment of citizens’ rights.

5. Nigerian Control in Decision-Making: Nigerians gained full control over decision-making and implementation.

6. Termination of British Influence: The constitution ended British influence over the country in all aspects.

7. Supreme Court Checks on Excesses: The Supreme Court was empowered to check the excesses or unconstitutional actions of the executive and the legislature.

Drawbacks Of The 1963 Republican Constitution

1. Minority Representation of the President: The president represented a minority interest of members of the House of Representatives instead of being based on the majority vote of the electorates.

2. Fusion of Legislative and Executive Powers: The constitution fused the legislative and executive arms of government.

3. Carpet Crossing Allowance: Elected members could easily change allegiance for personal rewards, a practice known as carpet crossing.

4. Parliamentary Supremacy Instead of Constitutional Supremacy: The constitution favored parliamentary supremacy over constitutional supremacy.

5. Lack of Prime Minister’s Accountability to the People: The prime minister was accountable to the parliament and not directly to the people.

6. Vulnerability to Bribery and Corruption: The legislative system was exposed to bribery and corruption, as the legislature could be easily influenced to secure compromises.

The Second Republican Constitution Of 1979

Historical Background

In 1975, General Murtala Mohammed assumed power, promising to end the long period of military rule that began on January 15, 1966. Although he did not live to fulfill this commitment, his deputy, Lt. General Olusegun Obasanjo, actualized the promise. The Constitution Drafting Committee, comprising 49 members, was established in 1975 to initiate this transition.

Key Features Of The 1979 Second Republican Constitution

1. Abandonment of the Parliamentary System in favor of the Presidential System.
2. Introduction of an executive president, serving as both head of state and government.
3. Direct election of the president by the electorate.
4. Appointment of ministers by the president, subject to confirmation by the senate.
5. Impeachment as a mechanism for the removal of the president and vice president.
6. Emphasis on the separation of powers among the three branches of government.
7. State-level governance with governors, deputy governors, and commissioners.
8. Presidential and gubernatorial terms limited to four years with a maximum of two terms.
9. President designated as the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces.
10. Allowance for lobbying but prohibition of carpet crossing.
11. Empowerment of the judiciary to interpret the law.
12. A bicameral National Assembly consisting of the Senate and House of Representatives.

Advantages Of The 1979 Constitution

1. Separation of powers prevents executive interference in the legislature.
2. The executive president, being popularly elected, remains accountable to the electorate.
3. Fixed terms of office prevent the perpetuation of power by a leader or party.
4. Supremacy of the Constitution ensures obedience from authorities and citizens.
5. Elaboration and guarantee of fundamental human rights.
6. Establishment of a new Federal Capital Territory.
7. President’s autonomy in ministerial appointments for optimal governance oversight.

Disadvantages Of The 1979 Constitution

1. Operational expenses increase due to duplicated functions.
2. Impeachment clause may be misused for political motives.
3. Concentration of powers in the president’s hands.
4. Potential delays in government program execution due to separation of powers.
5. Federal character may be compromised in appointments to federal establishments.
6. Possibility of conflicts between the executive and legislature.

Differences Between 1963 And 1979 Constitutions

1. The 1963 Constitution was based on the British Parliamentary System, while the 1979 Constitution adopted the American presidential system.
2. In 1963, the Prime Minister served as the head of government, while the 1979 executive president assumed both head of state and government roles.
3. The 1963 Constitution tied the prime minister to the majority party in parliament, while the 1979 president could be from a different party.
4. Clear separation of powers was established in the 1979 Constitution, unlike the fused organs in the 1963 Constitution.
5. Ministerial appointments in 1963 were limited to the majority party, while the 1979 Constitution allowed the president to appoint ministers outside the party.
6. In 1963, ministers were both parliamentary and executive members, while in 1979, ministers belonged solely to the executive.
7. The 1963 Constitution recognized an official opposition, unlike the 1979 Constitution.
8. Collective responsibility was absent in the 1979 Constitution, unlike the 1963 Constitution.
9. The 1963 Constitution upheld parliamentary supremacy, whereas the 1979 Constitution emphasized the supremacy of the constitution.
10. The 1979 Constitution allowed for the president’s removal through impeachment, while the 1963 Constitution provided for the prime minister’s removal via a vote of no confidence.

Nigerian Federalism

What is Nigerian Federalism?

Nigerian federalism has its roots dating back to 1914 when the Northern and Southern protectorates were amalgamated, albeit under a unitary form of administration. From that point onward, the distribution of governmental powers in Nigeria underwent a shift, with authority shared between the central government led by the governor-general and the governments of the Northern and Southern protectorates, each headed by lieutenant governors. Consequently, the administrative structure of Nigeria began to take on the characteristics of a federation, particularly with the autonomous status of the Northern and Southern provinces.

The country experienced further decentralization in 1946, as Sir Arthur Richards, the Governor of Nigeria at the time, divided it into three regions under the Richards constitutional arrangements. This move strongly supported the development of Nigeria as a federal system of government. The 1951 Macpherson constitution provided additional substantial backing for the establishment of a federal system in Nigeria.

In addition to the territorial division into the Northern, Western, and Eastern regions, the constitution appointed lieutenant governors to lead these regions and bestowed legislative powers upon the legislative and executive councils that were established. The 1954 Lyttleton constitution marked the definitive departure from a unitary state, formally establishing Nigeria as a true federal state. This constitution, effective from October 1, 1954, delineated powers between the central and regional governments. It also reorganized the judiciary to align with the federal structure of the country.

Federalism, as observed in Nigeria in 1954, involves power-sharing between the central government and subordinate units such as local governments and states/regions. The two-tiered system comprised the central and regional governments, each with defined and constitutionally shared powers. Exclusive legislative functions were assigned to the central government, concurrent legislative functions were shared between the central and regional governments, and residual functions were delegated to the regions.

Factors contributing to Nigerian federalism:

1. Cultural diversity facilitates the operation of federalism in Nigeria due to variations in religion, language, customs, and traditions among ethnic groups.
2. The fear of one ethnic group dominating others led to the establishment of federalism to ensure a balance of power.
3. Federalism was instituted to protect the interests of minority groups in Nigeria.
4. The large population and vast geographical areas of Nigeria necessitated the adoption of federalism for effective governance.
5. Federalism aims to promote rapid and equitable development across all regions of Nigeria.
6. Bringing government closer to the people and preserving local autonomy for ethnic groups are key objectives of federalism.
7. Division of powers reduces the governance burden, saves time, and enhances government efficiency.
8. The duplication of ministries and offices under federalism creates employment opportunities.
9. Diverse laws can be implemented to suit the needs of various communities in Nigeria.

Structure of Nigerian Federalism:

1. Federalism before independence featured centralization of power under the colonial system until the Lyttleton constitution of 1954 introduced true federalism.
2. Between 1960 and 1966, the independence constitution continued the federal structure, dividing the country into unequal regions.
3. The period from 1967 to 1975 saw the military introducing a unitary system, disrupting democratic institutions, and leading to the civil war.
4. From 1976 to the present, state creation increased, reaching 36 states, with the federal capital in Abuja.

Features of Nigerian Federalism:

1. Constitutional division of power between federal and regional governments.
2. A rigid and written constitution that grants powers to different levels of government.
3. Supremacy of the constitution.
4. Separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
5. Bicameral legislature exists.
6. The Supreme Court provides judicial interpretation and review.
7. Nigeria is divided into unequal regions or states.
8. Duplication of government organs across all levels.
9. Secession is not allowed in a federal system.

Problems of Nigerian Federalism:

1. Revenue allocation remains a major challenge, prompting the establishment of commissions to advise on acceptable formulas.
2. The issue of state creation is complex, given the diverse ethnic groups and their interests.
3. Federal character in appointments often overlooks merit, creating problems in the federal system.
4. Threats of secession based on divided allegiance pose challenges to federal unity.
5. Concerns of minority groups fearing domination by the majority impact national issues.
6. Ethnic disharmony can disrupt the unity and corporate existence of the country.
7. Boundary disputes between states or local governments threaten the nation’s stability.
8. Corruption, favoritism, and nepotism are persistent issues in Nigerian federalism.
9. Power-sharing among component units lacks proper definition.
10. Reliable and acceptable census-taking has been a longstanding problem in the country.

The Development Of Political Parties In Nigeria

Formation Of The Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP)

Established in 1923 following the adoption of the elective principle outlined in the Clifford constitution of 1922, the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) holds the distinction of being Nigeria’s inaugural political party. Initiated by Herbert Macaulay, a prominent figure in Nigeria’s nationalist movement, the party dominated the four elective legislative seats from 1923 to 1938.

The NNDP, responsible for founding the Lagos Daily News, focused its activities exclusively in Lagos, despite its national nomenclature. It secured all three legislative council seats allotted to Lagos in the 1923, 1928, and 1933 elections.

Rise Of The Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM)

Emerging in 1935 initially as the Lagos Youth Movement, the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) aimed at achieving complete autonomy for Nigeria. By 1938, it had ousted the Nigerian National Democratic Party, winning all four elective seats in the legislative council. Internal disputes, however, led to the party’s demise in 1944, with leaders like Ernest Ikoli and Samuel Akinsanya.

NYM’s objectives included advocating for the enhancement of Yaba Higher College’s status and independence for Nigeria, working toward national unity, and fostering the nation’s overall improvement.

Notable achievements of the NYM include securing all three elective seats for Lagos in the legislative council, acting as the first nationalist movement with a nationwide focus, giving rise to modern nationalism in Nigeria, promoting national unity and consciousness, establishing the influential Daily Service newspaper, and setting the stage for Nigeria’s political emancipation.

Founding Of The National Council Of Nigeria And Cameroon (NCNC)

Established in August 1944, the National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) saw Herbert Macaulay as its inaugural president, succeeded by Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe after Macaulay’s death. As the first party dedicated to achieving total independence for Nigeria, the NCNC set forth comprehensive aims and objectives, including self-government, political education, fostering political awareness among the masses, organizing and collaborating with branches nationwide, and providing members with a means of expression.

Contributions And Achievements Of The NCNC

The NCNC played a pivotal role in advocating for Nigeria’s unity and self-government. The party actively educated Nigerians about their political rights and launched the influential West Africa Pilot, serving as a potent platform against colonial rule. Noteworthy accomplishments include leading the nationalist opposition to the 1946 Richard’s Constitution, forming the inaugural regional government in the Eastern region, contributing significantly to its development, establishing a coalition government with the NPC in 1960, and producing the first president. Additionally, the NCNC raised funds for a protest delegation to London against the 1946 constitution.

The Development Of Political Parties In Nigeria 2

The Northern People’s Congress (NPC)

Originating from a socio-cultural group in Northern Nigeria, the Northern People’s Congress (NPC) was established in 1951 under the leadership of Sir Ahmadu Bello, with Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as deputy. The party, primarily comprised of the Hausa/Fulani ethnic group, placed a strong emphasis on Islam. Its governance spanned from 1951 to 1965, producing Nigeria’s inaugural prime minister.

Objectives Of NPC

1. Foster political and economic development in the North.
2. Work towards the autonomy of the Northern region.
3. Cultivate a climate of mutual understanding among Northern residents.
4. Educate Northerners about their political rights.

Contributions Of NPC

1. Extended control and governance over Northern Nigeria for a considerable period.
2. Produced the first prime minister and maintained rule during the initial republic.
3. Cultivated a sense of common understanding among Northern inhabitants.
4. Active participation in constitutional conferences both within and outside Nigeria.
5. Contributed to political awareness and education among the Northern population.

The Action Group

The Action Group (AG) emerged from the Yoruba cultural association, Egbe Omo Oduduwa, in 1951, with Chief Obafemi Awolowo as its founder and leader. Key members included Chief Bode Thomas, S.L. Akintola, Rewane, Chief Shonibare, and Yoruba traditional leaders, including the late Ooni of Ife, Sir Adesoji Aderemi.

Objectives Of Action Group

1. Contest and secure victories in elections to control the Western region.
2. Challenge the political dominance of the NCNC.
3. Collaborate with other nationalists to achieve Nigeria’s independence.
4. Strengthen tribal organizations within the Western region.

Contributions Of Action Group

1. Dominated Western Nigeria’s political landscape for approximately 11 years.
2. Formed the opposition party in the House of Representatives, serving as a watchdog.
3. Pioneered free primary education in the Western region in 1955.
4. Played a crucial role in the nationalist struggle for Nigeria’s independence.
5. Undertook efforts to enlighten the masses through political education.
6. Spearheaded the agitation for the 1951 constitutional reforms, with Chief Anthony Enahoro, an Action Group member, moving the motion for self-government in 1953.

Minor Political Parties

United Middle Belt Congress (UMBC)

Established in 1955 under the leadership of the late J.S. Tarka, the United Middle Belt Congress focused its political efforts in the middle belt, advocating for the creation of a separate middle belt region within the Northern region.

Northern Element Progressive Union (NEPU)

Formed in August 1950 under the leadership of the late Mallam Aminu Kano, the Northern Element Progressive Union was a politically radical and democratic party.

Political Parties In The Second Republic

National Party of Nigeria (NPN)

Officially launched in September 1978 in Lagos after the ban on party politics was lifted, the NPN could be considered an offshoot of the first republican political party, NPC. Its leadership comprised mainly former NPC members, such as Alhaji Aliyu Makama Bida, Ali Monguno, Shehu Shagari, Adamu Ciroma, and Adisa Akinloye (the party’s chairman).

Aims And Objectives Of NPN

1. Develop an admirable housing scheme for both urban and rural settings.
2. Build a strong and united nation fostering peace and harmony among contented citizens.
3. Respect the provisions of the constitution.
4. Establish a prosperous and self-reliant Nigeria with a robust agricultural and industrial sector, providing equal opportunities for all regardless of sex, race, religion, or tribe.

Contribution Of The NPN

1. Demonstrated a true national presence with members spread across the country.
2. Won the 1979 and 1983 Republican presidential elections.
3. Produced the first executive president for the country.
4. Won governorship elections in seven states.
5. Partially implemented its housing scheme in all states.
6. Contributed to the development of seasoned politicians capable of facing challenges anywhere.

Unity Party Of Nigeria (UPN)

The UPN emerged as the first political association after the lifting of the ban on political activities by the military government. Chief Obafemi Awolowo founded and led UPN, with other prominent figures including Chief Adekunle Ajasin, Alhaji Lateef Jakande, Chief Bola Ige, and Professor Ambrose Alli.

Aims And Objectives Of UPN

1. Provide free education at all levels.
2. Implement integrated rural development.
3. Offer free health services for all citizens.
4. Ensure full and gainful employment for all able-bodied individuals.

Contributions Of The UPN

1. Won gubernatorial elections in five states in 1979 and lost one in 1983.
2. Acted as a strong opposition party, curbing the excesses of the ruling party.
3. Introduced free education in all states won by UPN.
4. Produced eminent politicians in Nigeria.
5. Contributed to citizen education through programs such as rallies and symposia.

Political Parties In The Second Republic

The Nigeria People’s Party (NPP) was established under the leadership of Alhaji Waziri, alongside notable members such as Chief Adeniran Ogunsanya, who later became the party’s chairman, Chief Olu Akinfosile, Chief Mathew T. Mbu, Dr. Obi Wali, Chief Sam Mbakwe, Chief Dominic Nwaobodo, Chief Solomon Lar, Alhaji Ado Ibrahim, and others. Chief Nnamdi Azikiwe joined the party post-formation and eventually assumed leadership and presidential candidacy.

The Aims and Objectives of NPP encompassed the promotion of Nigeria’s unity, the pursuit of full employment, improvement of living standards through housing and food provisions, advocacy for a secular state upholding democracy, the rule of law, and safeguarding fundamental human rights, as well as the aspiration for a robust and self-reliant economy.

NPP’s Contributions were marked by victories in gubernatorial elections, where it governed Imo, Anambra, and Plateau states. The party played a crucial role in nurturing prominent politicians, acting as a bridge between the government and the people, collaborating with the ruling party to ensure a sustainable second republic administration, and aiding in the recruitment of leaders to political offices.

The Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) emerged when Alhaji Ibrahim Waziri, a founding NPP member, disagreed with the party caucus on the posts of party chairman and presidential candidate. Waziri formed GNPP, becoming its national leader and presidential candidate. GNPP secured victories in Borno and Gongola states.

The People’s Redemption Party (PRP), led by Mallam Aminu Kano, won gubernatorial elections and controlled Kano and Kaduna states.

The Nigeria Advance Party (NAP), the last registered party, was founded by Lagos lawyer Mr. Tunji Braithwaite. Although it contested the 1983 elections, it did not secure the presidency or win any gubernatorial seats after its registration subsequent to the 1979 general election.

Major Political Crisis In Nigeria

Kano Riot Of 1953

On May 16, 1953, a significant disturbance erupted in the historic city of Kano in Northern Nigeria. The catalyst for this event was a motion presented by Chief Anthony Enahoro, a member of the Action Group (AG) in the House of Representatives, proposing that Nigeria be granted self-government by 1956. In response, Sir Ahmadu Bello, the leader of the Northern People’s Congress (NPC), suggested an amendment advocating self-government at the earliest feasible opportunity. The ensuing disagreement over the motion strained relations between northern and southern leaders, leading to a walkout by AG and NCNC members in protest of the adjournment motion.

Upon leaving the house, northern delegates faced hostility in Lagos, where they were insulted and jeered by crowds. This embittered the northern delegation, prompting them to seek secession in their Eight Point Programme presented in the Northern Regional Legislative House. The Kano riot was ultimately triggered by a tour conducted by a delegation led by Chief S.L. Akintola, representing the AG and NCNC, advocating for self-government.

Political Ramifications of the Kano Riot:

1. The riot exacerbated the already strained relationship between northern and southern leaders.
2. It underscored the notion that only a federal system of government could effectively unify Nigeria.
3. The riot precipitated the London Constitutional Conference of 1953.
4. It led to a temporary working alliance between the NCNC and the Action Group.

The Census Crisis Of 1962/63

In 1962, a population census in Nigeria faced widespread criticism, with allegations of rigging prompting the government to annul the results. Subsequently, a new census was proposed for 1963, overseen by a census board under the prime minister’s authority. The November 1963 census results, published in February 1964, indicated a population of 55.7 million, with regional breakdowns of 29.8 million in the North, 12.4 million in the East, 10.3 million in the West, 2.5 million in the Mid-West, and 0.7 million in Lagos. While the federal government, Northern, and Western Regions accepted these figures, the Eastern and Mid-Western Regions rejected them, citing inflation, irregularities, and inadequacies.

In response, the Eastern Region challenged the census results in the Supreme Court, contesting their authenticity and the federal government’s acceptance. The court ruled in favor of the Federal Government, asserting that the Eastern Region lacked standing to sue on the matter. Consequently, these figures became the official base for developmental projections, constituency delimitations, parliamentary seat allocations, boundary adjustments, and other relevant matters.

Major Political Crisis In Nigeria 2

The 1962 Action Group Crisis

The turmoil within the Action Group in 1962 arose from a profound conflict within the party, with various factors contributing to the crisis.

1. Personality Clash: Chief Obafemi Awolowo, the party leader, clashed with Chief Akintola, the party’s deputy leader.

2. Factions: The party split into two main factions, one led by Chief Awolowo and the other by Chief Akintola.

3. Adoption of New Ideology: The party adopted a new ideology of democratic socialism, advocating a mixed economy. Akintola’s supporters did not embrace this new direction.

4. Expulsion Motion: Chief Akintola was dismissed from the position of Premier by the Governor, leading to further tensions.

5. Alliances: Awolowo’s faction aimed for a progressive alliance with NCNC, while Akintola’s faction sought cooperation with the conservative NPC.

6. Tension: The region experienced growing tension, resulting in police intervention to prevent disruption of the House proceedings by Akintola’s supporters.

7. State of Emergency: The federal government declared a state of emergency in the Western Region, appointing Dr. M.A. Majekodunmi as the administrator.

8. Formation of New Parties: Akintola and his supporters formed the United Progressive Party, later forming a coalition government called the Nigerian National Democratic Party.

9. Creation of Mid-West Region: A.G. did not support the creation of the Mid-West Region, causing further division.

Consequences Of The 1962 Action Group Crisis On Nigeria

1. State of Emergency: The Western House of Chiefs and House of Assembly were dissolved.

2. Temporary Administration: Dr. M.A. Majekodunmi served as a sole administrator.

3. Legal Action: Awolowo and his followers were charged with plotting to overthrow the government, received various prison sentences.

4. New Political Party: Akintola formed the United Progressive Party.

5. Coalition Government: UPP and NCNC formed a coalition government.

6. Formation of Alliances: N.N.A. and U.P.G.A. alliances were established for the 1964 federal elections.

7. Overthrow of Government: The crisis contributed to the federal government’s overthrow in January 1966.

8. Constitutional Weakness: The crisis revealed weaknesses in the constitution regarding the removal of a premier by the governor.

The 1964 Federal Election Crises

The 1964 federal election crisis posed a significant threat to Nigeria’s unity, stemming from alliances formed by major and minor political parties.

1. Alliances Formation: A.G. and NCNC factions, along with the Northern progressive front, formed UPGA. NPC, NNDP, MDF, and Dynamic Party formed NNA.

2. Campaign Strategies: Crude methods were employed during the campaign, with reported obstacles for UPGA candidates in filing nomination papers.

3. Boycott Threat: UPGA threatened to boycott the election, leading to a failed request by President Azikiwe to postpone it.

4. Election Outcome: NNA emerged victorious, but a deadlock ensued, delaying the formation of a new government for three days.

5. Government Formation: Eventually, the outgoing Prime Minister, Tafawa Balewa, formed a government without any Action Group members.

These crises had far-reaching consequences, impacting the political landscape and revealing weaknesses in the country’s governance structure.

Major Political Crisis In Nigeria 3

Western Nigeria Election Crisis Of 1965

In 1965, the political landscape of Western Nigeria witnessed a significant confrontation between the United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA) and the Nigeria National Alliance (NNA). As these two dominant parties engaged in coalitions at the national level, their rivalry intensified during the Western Nigeria elections.

Representing UPGA, the A.G. faced off against NNDP, the representative of NNA. Both parties recognized the crucial importance of this election and sought to maximize their influence. Prior to the election, the ruling NNDP in Western Nigeria implemented measures such as curfews to impede UPGA’s efforts in certain regions.

The dissolution of the Western House of Assembly preceding the elections mirrored the irregularities observed at the federal level. UPGA candidates faced challenges such as the denial of nomination forms, absentee electoral officers, and a campaign marred by thuggery, hooliganism, violence, arson, and looting.

Despite a petition from Alhaji D.S. Adegbenro, the UPGA leader, reporting malpractices to Governor Sir Odeleye Fadahunsi, no corrective action was taken. The October 11, 1965, election unfolded amidst numerous malpractices, including the smuggling and burning of ballot boxes, as well as unfair vote counting.

The official results declared NNDP as the winner of 88 out of the 98 contested seats. In response, Alhaji Adegbenro, in a press conference at Chief Awolowo’s residence in Ibadan, declared UPGA’s victory with 68 out of 98 seats. He proclaimed himself as the premier and appointed ministers, leading to a dual-government situation and triggering a severe political crisis.

Ultimately, Chief Akintola was sworn in as the premier, Alhaji Adegbenro was arrested, and violent demonstrations erupted, resulting in around 1,000 casualties and 5,000 houses destroyed. The political crisis persisted until the January 15, 1966 coup d’état, putting an end to the turmoil.

General Election Crisis Of 1979

The 1979 general elections marked a unique transition to Nigeria’s second republic after 13 years of military rule, operating under a newly introduced federal system. The Federal Electoral Commission (FEDECO), led by Chief Michael Ani, registered five political parties out of numerous associations. The parties included the National Party of Nigeria (NPN), Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN), Nigeria People’s Party (NPP), Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP), and People’s Redemption Party (PRP).

With Chief A.M.A. Akinloye as NPN’s chairman and Alhaji Shehu Shagari as its presidential candidate, Chief Obafemi Awolowo led UPN, while Chief Adeniran Ogunsanya chaired NPP with Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe as the presidential candidate. The elections spanned five Saturdays, covering the senate, House of Representatives, State Assemblies, Governorship, and presidential positions.

The most contentious was the presidential election, where Alhaji Shehu Shagari emerged the winner without securing 25% in two-thirds of the federation. Despite legal challenges, the controversial formula of 122/3 was accepted, leading to Shagari’s declaration as the winner. The crisis persisted through the Presidential Election Tribunal and the Supreme Court, affirming Shagari’s victory.

General Elections Of 1983

In 1983, the transition to the third republic culminated in the general elections at the end of President Shehu Shagari’s first term. Six political parties participated, with the newly registered Nigeria Advanced Party. The election commission (FEDECO), chaired by Justice Ovie Whiskey, altered the sequence, favoring the presidential election, followed by other positions.

The August 6 presidential election resulted in Shagari’s victory amid allegations of massive rigging and falsification of figures. The NPN’s control increased to 10 states, and accusations of rigging fueled riots, looting, and arson. The military intervention of December 31, 1983, ensued as a response to the chaotic aftermath of the elections.

Major Political Crisis In Nigeria 4

The 1981 crisis in Kaduna State marked a pivotal moment in the state’s political landscape.

In the 1979 gubernatorial election, the PRP emerged victorious, securing Alhaji Balarabe Musa as the governor on October 1, 1979. Despite this, the PRP did not hold the majority of seats in the state assembly.

With the NPN claiming the majority in the House, they controlled key positions such as the speaker and majority leader. According to constitutional provisions, the governor was required to present his nominated candidates as commissioners to the State House of Assembly.

Alhaji Balarabe Musa encountered resistance as the House rejected his nominated commissioners three times, leading to escalating tensions between the executive and legislative branches. The NPN-controlled legislature sought to oust the governor through impeachment.

In pursuit of this goal, various charges and accusations were leveled against the governor, creating a backdrop for his potential removal. Despite intervention attempts by some state assemblies, the legislators remained steadfast in their determination to remove the governor.

A committee was established to investigate the allegations, and its report was subsequently adopted. The impeachment notice was served by the speaker of the House, Alhaji Mamman Dan Musa, officially marking the commencement of the process to remove Alhaji Balarabe Musa as the governor of Kaduna State.

The Nigerian Civil War

The Nigerian Civil War commenced on July 6, 1967, and officially concluded on January 15, 1970, with Major-General Philip Effiong, the chief of staff of the Republic of Biafra, formally renouncing the existence of the state at Dodan Barracks in Lagos.

Causes Of The Civil War

Immediate Causes

The war had both immediate and remote causes:

1. The massacre of the Ibos in the Northern Nigerian army by politicians of the first republic.
2. Personality clash between Ojukwu and Gowon, both believing violence was the only means to reach an agreement.
3. The secession bid, declaring the Eastern Region as the Republic of Biafra on May 30, 1967.
4. The failure of General Gowon to implement the agreement reached with Ojukwu at Aburi, Ghana.

Remote Causes

1. Rigging of the Western election in 1965.
2. Fear of one tribe dominating others after the January 15, 1966, military coup.
3. Abolition of the federal system of government by General J.T.U. Aguiyi Ironsi.
4. Refusal of General Ironsi to bring January 15, 1966, coup plotters to justice.
5. Over-ambition of some military officers to seize power.
6. Eastern Region’s intention to control the oil discovered in its part of the country.
7. Unilateral division of the country into twelve states by Gowon’s government.

Positive Consequences Of The Civil War

1. Maintenance of Nigeria’s territorial integrity and unity.
2. Reduction in the likelihood of secession by ethnic groups or states.
3. Increased central government power.
4. Expansion of federal government authority to create more states.
5. Technological advancement in Nigeria.
6. Enhanced confidence in the O.A.U., with only four countries recognizing the state of Biafra.

Negative Consequences Of The Civil War

1. Loss of lives and properties, leading to a reduction in Nigeria’s population.
2. Reduction in the population of Nigerian soldiers due to casualties.
3. Financial and material costs incurred during the war.
4. Untold hardship on the people of Nigeria.
5. Disruption of education in many parts of the federation.
6. Standstill in economic activities.
7. Division of the country into twelve states.
8. Disrespect brought to Nigeria.
9. Jeopardized peace and tranquility in the country.

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