Table of Contents
Farm tools represent uncomplicated and convenient implements crafted by farmers or local artisans to perform fundamental agricultural tasks. Individuals engaged in crop cultivation and animal husbandry often employ these straightforward tools to streamline and expedite their work.
For a practical or project assignment, obtain a drawing book to illustrate all 30 highlighted farm tools. Accompany each drawing with a brief description, outline methods of maintenance, and specify their uses.
To ensure optimal use, farm tools, whether made of metal or wood, require meticulous care. Maintenance practices include storing tools with wooden parts in termite-free locations, oiling or greasing metal components, painting metal parts if stored for an extended period, sharpening blunt edges regularly, cleaning or washing after each use, and keeping nozzles free from blockages.
Power, defined as the rate of doing work or energy expenditure, is measured in joule/seconds or watts. Farm power encompasses the capacity provided by various sources to perform agricultural tasks, incorporating energy, force, and resources for farming operations.
Utilizing human intellect and manual effort for diverse farming activities, human power is a fundamental source of farm energy. The key advantage lies in the ability of humans to intelligently control their work.
  Advantages of Human Power:
  Disadvantages of Human Power:
Involves using animals like working bullocks, camels, and donkeys for farm operations such as ploughing and transporting produce.
  Advantages of Work Animals:
  Disadvantages of Work Animals:
Involves using machines powered by engines, either directly or indirectly through electricity or fuel combustion.
  Advantages of Mechanical Power:
  Disadvantages of Mechanical Power:
 Derives power from electricity or generators, operating modern appliances and tools.
  Advantages of Electrical Power:
  Disadvantages of Electrical Power:
  Derives power from sunlight through solar panels, converting it into electrical energy.
  Advantages of Solar Power:
  Disadvantages of Solar Power:
Generated by wind movement, often through windmills for pumping water or generating electricity.
  Advantages of Wind Power:
  Disadvantages of Wind Power:
  Derived from flowing water in rivers, oceans, or dams, used in hydroelectric stations.
  Advantages of Water Power:
  Disadvantages of Water Power:
Generated from farm wastes, particularly animal dung and urine, processed to produce methane gas.
  Advantages of Biogas:
  Disadvantages of Biogas:
Mechanization in agriculture involves the application of engineering principles and technology to enhance production. This includes utilizing machines such as tractors, ploughs, harvesters, harrows, planters, as well as employing farm inputs like insecticides, improved seeds, and fertilizers.
The primary goals of mechanization are to:
The digestive system of farm animals encompasses all the organs and tissues involved in breaking down or digesting food within the body. It includes the teeth or beak, tongue, alimentary canal or digestive tract, and all associated glands that secrete enzymes and other body fluids.
Digestion is the process of breaking down food substances in the digestive tract into absorbable forms. This process begins in the mouth with mastication, which increases the surface area and allows microbes quicker access to act on the food substances. Farm animals are categorized into two main classes based on the nature of the alimentary canal or digestive tract: polygastric (ruminant) animals and monogastric (non-ruminant) animals.
Ruminant animals possess a complex stomach with four compartments: rumen (paunch), reticulum or fore stomach (honeycomb), omasum (the fardel, manyplies, or psalterium), and abomasum (true stomach). These animals can ruminate or chew cud. Examples of farm animals with this stomach compartment include cattle, sheep, and goats.
For instance, cattle, when feeding, gather a quantity of grass with their tongues, grip it firmly between the upper and lower jaws, jerk their heads, and swallow the grass. The grass then passes through the esophagus into the rumen, where bacterial digestion of cellulose takes place.
When the rumen is filled, the cattle lies down quietly, and through anti-peristaltic movement, undigested grass or cud passes from the rumen to the reticulum. From there, it goes back to the esophagus and mouth to be regurgitated and re-chewed. The food is properly chewed into a semi-liquid cud with the premolars and molars, which is then re-swallowed. The cud moves into the omasum and then into the abomasum, where gastric juice containing digestive enzymes is secreted into the semi-digested food to form chyme. The chyme moves into the small intestine through the duodenum, where further digestion and absorption occur. The undigested material is expelled through the anus as dung.
Non-ruminant animals have a simpler, single-compartment stomach, and they do not ruminate or chew cud. Examples include pigs and poultry. Pigs, for example, have a simple stomach and feed mainly on basal feeds like maize and cassava. Digestion of food takes place in various areas of the tract.
In the mouth, food is mixed with saliva containing the enzyme Ptyalin, which converts starch to maltose. The food (bolus) is then swallowed and moved by peristaltic movement to the stomach. In the stomach, enzymes like pepsin and rennin are present, acting on milk and converting protein to peptones. —-The resulting thick liquid (chyme) passes to the duodenum.
At the duodenum, the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice with digestive enzymes, such as amylase, lipase, and trypsinogen. Bile aids in the emulsification of fats. Further digestion and absorption of nutrients occur in the small intestine, where additional enzymes are secreted.
Poultry birds, like domestic fowl, have a monogastric digestive system with a simple stomach. The food, picked up by the beak, passes through the oesophagus to the crop, where it is temporarily stored, moistened, and fermented by bacteria. The food then moves to the proventriculus (glandular stomach), where digestive juices like pepsin and amylase are secreted. From the proventriculus, the food moves to the gizzard for grinding before reaching the small intestine for further digestion and absorption. Undigested materials are expelled as faeces.
Monogastric:
Polygastric:
The circulatory system comprises all the tissues and organs involved in transporting materials through the blood in farm animals. Farm animals have a closed circulatory system, where oxygenated and deoxygenated blood does not mix. The system displays a pattern of double circulation or single circulation. The circulatory system has three main divisions: the blood, the blood vessels, and the heart.
Mammalian blood is composed of plasma and blood cells, including red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leucocytes), and blood platelets (thrombocytes). Each type of blood cell has specific functions contributing to the overall maintenance of the body.
Functions of the blood include maintaining body temperature, carrying oxygen through red blood cells, transporting hormones, removing metabolic waste, defending the body against germs, aiding in blood clotting through platelets, and transporting digested food to cells.
Blood vessels form a network that moves materials through the body with the aid of blood. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood back to the heart, and capillaries are tiny blood vessels around tissues and organs where arteries and veins meet.
The heart, a muscular organ responsible for pumping blood throughout the body, exhibits a pattern of double circulation. It consists of four chambers: the upper auricles (right and left) and the lower ventricles (right and left). The heart’s action involves pumping blood twice, first to the lungs for oxygenation and then back to the rest of the body.
Reproduction is the biological process that gives rise to new organisms from their parent, ensuring the continuity of life. Farm animals reproduce sexually, with most being viviparous. The reproductive system includes all the organs and tissues concerned with reproduction in animals.
The male reproductive system includes testes, which produce spermatozoa and the sex hormone testosterone. Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes, and the sperm cells are stored and matured in the epididymis. The vas deferens transports sperm from the testes to the uterus masculinus, where mature spermatozoa are stored until mating. Accessory glands produce fluids that, along with spermatozoa, form semen. The urethra serves as both a uro-genital organ and the channel for injecting sperm into the vagina.
The female reproductive system consist of a pair of ovaries that produces egg cells or ova and fallopian tubes where fertilization occurs an which transports the fertilized ovum to the uterus. The uterus is the place in the female reproductive system where the growth of foetus takes place. The cervix separates the uterus from the vagina or birth canal. The entire system ends with the vulva (labia majora and minora) to the external.
Vagina is a fibro muscular tube of 7.5 to 10cm in length, situated anterior to the rectum and anal canal and posterior to the bladder and urethra. It is the organ of copulation, deposition of semen, and exit from uterus during parturition. The accessory organ of the female reproductive system includes outermost portion of the vagina (vestibule). The cowper’s glands also called bartholin’s gland is 1.5 to 2.0cm in length located above the perineal gland. It secretes mucus to provide vaginal lubrication.
The respiratory system encompasses all the organs and tissues involved in the exchange of gases between the animal and its environment, facilitating the release of energy. Respiration aims to provide oxygen to cells, enabling the breakdown of food for energy.
Respiratory organs include structures like lungs in land animals and gills in aquatic animals. Land animals utilize lungs for respiration, accompanied by nostrils, pharynx, larynx, and trachea. The trachea connects the pharynx and larynx to the lungs, branching into bronchi, which lead air into the lungs. The bronchioles carry air to the alveoli, tiny sacs facilitating the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Breathing involves the conscious or unconscious movement of air in and out of the lungs. Inhalation is the inward movement of air, while exhalation is the outward movement. Aquatic animals employ gills, located on the sides of the head, for respiration. Gill filaments in the gill chamber facilitate gaseous exchange, aided by gill rakers and gill arch. The operculum seals the gill chamber externally.
The respiratory system:
The nervous system comprises organs and tissues enabling farm animals to respond to environmental changes. Stimuli trigger responses, and the nervous system consists of two parts:
Central Nervous System (C.N.S.): Includes the brain and spinal cord, responsible for correlating impulses from sense organs and storing information.
Peripheral Nervous System (P.N.S.): Comprises cranial and spinal nerves, mediating interactions between animals and their external environment.
Reproduction is the process that gives rise to young in farm animals; it is the ability of animals to birth young. This process starts when the animal is sexually matured. The time of sexual maturity varies between animals, in cattle, it takes up to 15 months, in goat and sheep about 6 months, in poultry about 18 weeks etc. The following terms are associated with reproduction in farm animals.
This is the interval from the end of one heat period to the beginning of another. It is under the influence of a hormone called oestrogen. It is the sexual cycle that occurs in all female animals if the animal is not pregnant. The period varies among farm animals:
Cow is 20 – 21 days
Ewe is 17 – 21 days
Sow is 14 – 28 days
Doe (goat) is 17 – 21 days
Doe (rabbit) is spontaneous
This is the rupturing of the ovarian wall to release egg into the fallopian tube in farm animals; a process is controlled by luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). It varies among
farm animals
Cow is 10 – 14 hours
Ewe is 20 – 24 hours
Sow is 24 – 36 hours
Doe (goat) is 12 – 36 hours
Doe (rabbit) is spontaneous
Heat Period
This is the period in which female animals have the urge to copulate or accept the male animal. The female shows signs of readiness to mate. It is controlled by oestrogen. It varies among farm animals
Cow is 5 – 24 hours
Ewe is 35 – 36 hours
Sow is 40 – 48 hours
Doe (goat) is 40 – 50 hours
Doe (rabbit) is spontaneous
Ovulation (release of eggs) then heat period (receptivity to mating) then oestrus period (preparatory period for next ovulation)/pregnancy if there is successful mating that leads to fertilization.
This is also called coitus or copulation (sexual intercourse). This is the act in which the penis of the male animal is inserted into the vaginal of the female animal leading to introduction of sperm into the vagina. Mating could be natural or artificial.
Natural Mating
It occurs when a male after identifying a female on heat, mates with the female animal. Examples of natural mating include:
Flock Mating
This is a deliberate act in which the male and female animals are allowed to move together
Advantages Flock Mating
Disadvantages Flock Mating
A female may be mated by more than one male thereby paternity become a difficult thing to determine
Two female may be on heat at the same time, thereby leading to the mating of only one of them.
Pen Mating
This form of mating occurs in pigs and poultry. A male is given a specific number of female depending on the strength of the breed. About 1 male to 20 females on heat
Advantages Pen Mating
In poultry female eggs can be produced
There is tendency of servicing female on heat
Disadvantages Pen Mating
The spread of venereal diseases may be rampant
Deformed male may not be able to mate
Stud Mating
A male (stud)with proven qualities is kept in a room in this type. Any female that is on heat is led to it for mating and thereafter the female is removed.
Advantages Stud Mating
Disadvantages Stud Mating
Artificial Mating
This is called artificial insemination, which involves the act of inserting the spermatozoa artificially into the vagina of female animals on heat. The sperm is collected from a male animal with desired characters with the aid of an artificial vagina, massage method, etc. Sperm collected is stored in liquid nitrogen at -196°C.
Advantages Artificial Mating
Disadvantages Artificial Mating
This is the fusion of the male and female sex cells spermatozoa and ovum respectively. This process occurs in the Fallopian tube or oviduct.
Implantation
This is the attachment of zygote (fertilized egg) to the wall of the uterus after fertilization. The zygote develops into a foetus and continues to grow till time of parturition.
Gestation Period
This is a period between fertilization of an ovum to the birth of young ones, conception and
birth. During gestation, female animals do not come on heat. It is under the control of a hormone called progesterone (Pregnancy hormone).
Features Of The Gestation Period
ANIMAL SPECIESÂ Â FEMALE NAMEÂ Â Â Â Â Â GESTATION PERIOD
Horse,                                  Mare                        336 days
Cattle,                                  Cow                          283 days
Goat,                                    Doe                          150 days
Sheep,                                 Ewe                          150 days
Pig,                                       Sow                          114 days
Rabbit,                                 Doe                          31 days
Chicken,                              Hen                          21 days
This is the act of giving birth in farm animals. It marks the end of pregnancy and the beginning of lactation. The act of parturition for each animal is unique.
Cow is Calving
Sow is Farrowing
Ewe is Lambing
Goat (Doe) is Kidding
Rabbit (Doe) is Kindling
Poultry is hatching
Signs Of Approaching Parturition
This is the period during which the female releases milk from its udder immediately after parturition and thereafter. Lactation is under the control of a hormone called oxytocin, it can be increased by injecting animals with oxytocin.
Lactation is also stimulated by the presence of the young ones, the presence of a milker, the use of hand to rub the udder and the use of machine to milk the cow. The milk from goat is the best and richest of all the animals. Milk collected from animals is made fit for consumption via a process known as pasteurization.
This is the milk produced immediately after parturition within the first five days of milk production is essentially colostrum. It is yellowish-white milk. It is important for the new born animals to take colostrum because
The egg in poultry is partly formed in the ovary and the oviduct. At ovulation, the ovum carrying the yolk is released by the ovary into the oviduct through the funnel called the infundibulum. Fertilization takes place in the infundibulum where the egg spends 15 minutes and moves into the magnum.
In the magnum, part of the egg white (albumen) and the chalaza are secreted around the yolk. The egg stays for 3 hours in the magnum and moves into the isthmus where the two shell membranes are formed. The egg stays for 1 hour and 15 minutes in the isthmus and moves into the uterus where it remains for 18 – 21 hours and the egg shell is formed from calcium carbonate.
Mineral solutions are also added to the egg before it moves into the vagina where it remains for 1 – 15 minutes before it is laid through the cloaca. A complete formation of eggs takes almost 26 hours.
Hormones, which are organic chemical substances produced by endocrine (ductless) glands, play a crucial role in influencing the growth, development, and metabolic activities in farm animals. These hormones can be categorized as follows:
Source: Testes
Functions:
Source: Ovary
Functions:
Source: Corpus luteum
Functions:
Source: Pituitary
Functions:
Relaxin (Female)
Source: Pituitary
Function: Aiding the relaxation of pelvic ligaments during parturition.
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) (Female)
Source: Pituitary
Function: Stimulation of the growth of ovarian follicles.
Source: Pituitary
Functions:
Environmental physiology explores how the environment influences the growth and performance of farm animals, studying their responses to various environmental factors. The aim is to achieve moderation for optimal growth and performance.
Climate encompasses the atmospheric conditions of a location over time, including rainfall, wind, temperature, humidity, and sunlight.
Increased rainfall can lead to higher pest and disease incidence, chilling of young animals, challenges in rearing dairy animals, and unfavorable conditions for grass growth.
Control Of Rainfall
Implementing measures such as shelters, rain breaks, drainage channels, and strategic building orientation.
Wind can contribute to the spread of airborne diseases and negatively impact animal growth. Moderate wind velocity supports good ventilation but can also affect hormone levels in animals.
Control Of Wind
Implementing measures like shelters, windbreaks, proper openings, and strategic building orientation.
High temperatures can reduce food intake, impact reproductive processes in males, cause heat stress, and affect water consumption. Temperature fluctuations influence egg hatching, yield, and product storage.
Control Of Heat And Temperature
Introducing fans or air conditioners, providing adequate ventilation, using heat-conserving materials, and employing reflective surfaces on roofs.
Humidity plays a vital role in physiological processes, but high humidity can cause stress and diseases, while low humidity increases water intake and encourages rapid water loss from animals.
Control Of Humidity
Utilizing humidifiers or open trays with water, promoting ventilation, and avoiding water spillage to manage humidity.
Light controls egg laying, influences feeding duration, and affects animal activity. Intense light can cause stress to the eyes.
Control Of Light
Adjusting illumination during short daylight, incorporating openings for natural lighting, and regulating light intensity through window coverings.
Extreme climate conditions can have positive or negative economic impacts. Wind, rainfall, humidity, and temperature variations can affect animal growth and health.
Farmers can address these challenges by installing fans and air conditioners, planning for proper ventilation in construction, using heat-resistant building materials, employing reflective surfaces, and implementing measures to control humidity.
Excessive sunlight, high humidity, and elevated temperatures can negatively impact milk production, leading to heat stress and increased pathogen growth.
High temperatures can reduce egg shelf life, hatchability, feed intake, and overall egg production quantity. Light duration influences feeding time but may not necessarily result in increased yield.
Key Aspects of Pig Management
Introduction to Pigs:
Pigs, belonging to the genus Sus within the Suidae family, are non-ruminant animals primarily raised for meat production.
Terms Used in Pig Management:
Boar: Mature male pig
Sow: Mature female pig
Piglet: Young or baby pig
Barrow: Castrated male pig
In-sow: Pregnant sow
Dry sow: Non-pregnant sow
Fatteners: Pigs raised for meat
Gilt: Mature female pig that has not reproduced or has only reproduced once
Rich protein source
Short gestation period of 114 days
Prolific, farrowing twice a year with 8-14 piglets per litter
High dressing percentage
Efficient feed-to-meat conversion
Quick maturation (6-9 months)
Polyestrus (able to breed at any time)
High salvage value
Extensive System: Pigs roam freely, with low capital but higher disease risk.
Semi-intensive System: Housing provided, natural vegetation feeding, less capital intensive.
Intensive System: Confined pigs with controlled environment, capital intensive but high growth rate.
Pens located away from residential areas
Low-walled concrete floors for airflow
Rough flooring to prevent slipping
Asbestos roof for heat absorption
Provision of feed and water troughs
Balanced diet to prevent excessive fat deposition
Specialized feed for breeders, piglets, and fattening stages
Adequate nutrition, avoiding overfeeding
Creep feeding for piglets, laxative diet for pregnant animals
Regular cleaning and disinfection of pens
Cleaning of feeding and water troughs
Deworming at regular intervals
Vaccination against diseases
Breeding to Farrowing
Birth to Weaning
Weaning to Finishing
External parasites controlled through regular spraying or dipping
Internal parasites managed by broad-spectrum anthelmintics
Common diseases include African Swine Fever, Swine Erysipelas, and Hypoglycemia
In the realm of pig farming, vigilance against parasites and diseases is paramount for maintaining herd health and productivity. An integrated approach is adopted to combat both external parasites, which dwell on the skin or fur of pigs, and internal parasites, which infest various organs within their bodies.
External parasites such as lice, mites, and ticks are diligently managed through routine spraying or dipping regimens. These treatments not only help to eradicate existing infestations but also serve as preventive measures to thwart future outbreaks. By employing effective parasiticides and adhering to recommended application frequencies, pig farmers can ensure the comfort and well-being of their livestock while safeguarding against economic losses caused by parasitic infestations.
Internally, pigs may fall prey to a spectrum of parasites, including roundworms, tapeworms, and flukes, which can wreak havoc on their gastrointestinal and respiratory systems if left unchecked. To address this threat, broad-spectrum anthelmintic medications are administered at strategic intervals. These potent agents target a wide range of parasitic species, effectively purging them from the pigs’ bodies and restoring intestinal health. Regular fecal testing and veterinary consultations aid in devising tailored deworming protocols suited to the specific needs and conditions of each pig herd.
Despite stringent preventive measures, the specter of infectious diseases looms over pig populations, necessitating constant vigilance and swift action to mitigate outbreaks. Among the most notorious afflictions is African Swine Fever, a highly contagious viral disease with devastating consequences for pig farming economies worldwide. Rigorous biosecurity measures, including restricted access to infected areas and strict sanitation protocols, are enforced to prevent the introduction and spread of this virulent pathogen. Additionally, vaccination campaigns may be employed where feasible to bolster herd immunity and minimize the risk of transmission.
Swine Erysipelas, caused by the bacterium *Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae*, poses another significant health threat to pigs, manifesting as acute septicemia or chronic arthritis and endocarditis. Prompt diagnosis and treatment with antibiotics are essential for curtailing the progression of this disease and preventing its dissemination within the herd. Implementing robust biosecurity measures, maintaining optimal hygiene standards, and closely monitoring pig health are instrumental in containing outbreaks and preserving the integrity of the pig farming enterprise.
Hypoglycemia, or low blood sugar, can afflict pigs of all ages, particularly piglets, leading to weakness, lethargy, and even death if left unaddressed. Proper nutrition management, including providing access to high-energy feeds and ensuring adequate colostrum intake for newborn piglets, is crucial for averting hypoglycemic episodes. Additionally, vigilant monitoring of blood glucose levels, especially during periods of stress or illness, enables early intervention and supportive care to stabilize affected pigs and prevent complications.
The effective management of parasites and diseases in pig farming hinges on a multifaceted approach encompassing preventive measures, timely intervention, and meticulous husbandry practices. By prioritizing animal welfare, implementing robust biosecurity protocols, and fostering collaboration between farmers and veterinary professionals, pig producers can mitigate the impact of health challenges and sustainably optimize the productivity and profitability of their operations.
Preventing diseases in pigs necessitates a multifaceted approach, encompassing effective management practices, optimal nutrition strategies, stringent hygiene protocols, and well-designed housing facilities.
Effective management involves vigilant monitoring of the pigs’ health status, prompt identification of any signs of illness, and swift implementation of appropriate interventions. This includes regular health assessments by qualified veterinarians, as well as the establishment of biosecurity measures to minimize the risk of disease introduction and spread within the herd.
Nutrition plays a pivotal role in bolstering the pigs’ immune system and overall health. A balanced diet tailored to meet their nutritional requirements is essential for optimizing their resistance to diseases and promoting robust growth and development.
Maintaining impeccable hygiene standards within the pig production environment is imperative for disease prevention. This entails thorough cleaning and disinfection of facilities, equipment, and personnel, as well as the implementation of strict biosecurity protocols to prevent the ingress of pathogens onto the farm premises.
Furthermore, the design and maintenance of housing facilities should prioritize the pigs’ welfare and minimize stress, as stressed animals are more susceptible to diseases. Adequate ventilation, temperature control, and space allocation are essential aspects of housing management to ensure the pigs’ comfort and well-being.
In addition to these general preventive measures, specific control measures tailored to the prevalence of particular diseases should be implemented. This may involve sourcing pigs from accredited disease-free farms or implementing stringent quarantine protocols for incoming stock to prevent the introduction of pathogens into the herd.
By diligently implementing these preventive measures, pig producers can safeguard the health and welfare of their animals, minimize the risk of disease outbreaks, and optimize the productivity and profitability of their operations.
African Swine Fever: Highly contagious, no treatment, prevention through obtaining stock from ASF-free farms and thorough disinfection.
Swine Erysipelas: Caused by bacteria, treated with antibiotics.
Hypoglycemia: Baby pig disease, preventable through warmth provision in cold seasons and glucose injection for diseased animals.
These diseases represent some of the common health concerns in pig farming. Effective disease management strategies, including vaccination, biosecurity measures, and regular veterinary care, are essential for maintaining herd health and productivity.
Cattle, which are ruminant animals with complex stomach structures, possess hollow horns and hoofs. They are raised for various purposes such as meat, milk, hide and skin, manure, and as draught animals for farm work. Cattle belong to the family Bovidae and genus Bos, with humped cattle classified as Bos indicus and humpless as Bos taurus.
Breeds of Cattle:
Cattle breeds fall into three categories:
Beef cattle: Producing high-quality meat, examples include Sokoto Gudali, Red Bororo, Kuri, N’dama, Muturu, and Keteku.
Dairy cattle: Primarily reared for milk production, including White Fulani, Jersey, Ayshere, etc.
Dual-purpose cattle: Capable of producing both meat and milk, such as Muturu and Wadara (Shuwa).
Bull: Adult male cattle
Cow: Adult female cattle
Calf: Young or baby cattle
Heifer: Growing female cattle up to her first calving
Serving: Mating in cattle
Calving: Parturition in cattle
Herd: Group of cattle
Beef: Meat from cattle
Large-bodied animals with horns (some polled)
Humped or humpless
Calve at least once a year
Gestation period of 275-283 days
Female produces a calf in one parturition
Extensive System: Herdsmen move cattle in search of food and water, with no organized housing. Exposed to natural hazards and diseases.
Semi-Intensive System: Housing provided, and cattle allowed to move within a fenced compound. Moderate capital investment, with slightly higher disease risk.
Intensive System: Cattle confined within a building, with controlled access to grazing. Low risk of disease and parasite infestation.
Cattle require a balanced diet.
Grazers that feed on roughages (grasses and legumes).
Common grasses include elephant grass, guinea grass, and giant star grass.
Concentrate feed supplements their diet.
Dairy cattle receive more concentrate than beef cattle.
Management encompasses three stages: breeding to calving, birth of calf to weaning, and weaning to finishing.
This statement outlines the different stages involved in the management of cattle, which typically include:
Each stage requires specific management practices tailored to the needs of the cattle at that particular phase of their life cycle. Effective management throughout these stages is crucial for ensuring the health, welfare, and productivity of the cattle, as well as for optimizing the economic outcomes for the farmers or ranchers involved.
Cattle can be affected by various parasites and diseases, which can impact their health and productivity. Some common parasites and diseases of cattle include:
(a) Gastrointestinal Worms: Including species like Ostertagia, Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, and Cooperia.
(b) Lungworms: Such as Dictyocaulus viviparus.
(c) Liver Flukes: Such as Fasciola hepatica.
(a) Ticks: Various species like Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus and Amblyomma spp.
(b) Mites: Including Chorioptes bovis and Sarcoptes scabiei.
(c) Lice: Such as Haematopinus eurysternus and Linognathus vituli.
(d) Flies: Including horn flies (Haematobia irritans) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans).
(a) Anaplasmosis: Caused by Anaplasma marginale, transmitted by ticks.
(b) Babesiosis: Caused by Babesia spp., transmitted by ticks.
(c) Trypanosomiasis: Caused by Trypanosoma spp., transmitted by tsetse flies.
(a) Brucellosis: Caused by Brucella abortus, leading to abortion in cattle.
(b) Anthrax: Caused by Bacillus anthracis, often seen as sudden death in cattle.
(c) Clostridial Diseases: Including blackleg (Clostridium chauvoei) and tetanus (Clostridium tetani).
(a) Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD): Caused by BVD virus.
(b) Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR): Caused by bovine herpesvirus 1.
(c) Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD): Caused by FMD virus, causing fever and blisters on the feet and mouth.
(a) Coccidiosis: Caused by various species of Eimeria.
(b) Neosporosis: Caused by Neospora caninum, leading to reproductive issues.
(a) Grass Tetany: Caused by magnesium deficiency.
(b) Bloat: Caused by excess gas accumulation in the rumen.
(c) Ketosis: Often seen in high-producing dairy cows, caused by negative energy balance.
Regular monitoring, vaccination, proper nutrition, and parasite control are essential components of preventing and managing these diseases and parasites in cattle. Veterinary consultation and diagnostic testing are crucial for accurate diagnosis and treatment.
Agriculture encompasses the art and science of cultivating crops and raising animals for human use. It involves activities ranging from soil cultivation and livestock management to the distribution and marketing of plant and animal products.
The term “agriculture” is derived from two Latin words: “Ager,” meaning field, farm, or land, and “Culture,” signifying cultivation. While it initially refers to field cultivation, agriculture extends beyond to include animal production.
Various branches of agriculture include Animal Science, Veterinary Medicine, Soil Science, Crop Production, Agricultural Economics and Farm Management, Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Extension and Education, Forestry and Wildlife Conservation, Fishery, Apiculture (Bee Farming), and Heliculture (Snailry).
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Subsistence agriculture, often referred to as peasant farming, is a fundamental form of agricultural practice primarily aimed at producing food for the farmer’s own consumption and that of their family. This method involves the cultivation of crops and the rearing of animals on a small scale, utilizing basic and traditional tools such as cutlasses, hoes, and axes. Subsistence farmers, who are typically economically disadvantaged, focus on meeting the immediate nutritional needs of their households rather than generating surplus for sale.
In stark contrast, commercial agriculture is an extensive farming approach dedicated to the mass production of both food and cash crops for commercial purposes. This type of farming is characterized by large-scale operations conducted by financially affluent farmers. Complex and modern machinery, such as tractors, bulldozers, planters, and harvesters, is employed in commercial agriculture to enhance efficiency and maximize output for market distribution.
Production Purpose:
Scale of Operation:
Labor Utilization:
Management Approach:
Production Scale:
Cost of Production:
Market Dependency:
Environmental Impact:
Employment Generation:
Crop Diversity:
Specialization:
Access to Credit:
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The challenge of insufficient agricultural land production in Nigeria stems from the communal ownership of land, preventing any individual from claiming exclusive rights. This communal ownership hinders capital-rich individuals from securing land for investment.
Solutions:
Inadequate Provision of Basic/Social Amenities:
The shortage of essential amenities such as electricity, clean water, healthcare, and schools in rural areas poses a hindrance to agricultural development in Nigeria.
Solutions:
Poor Financial Status of Farmers:
Farmers face challenges in investing substantial capital in their activities due to their financial constraints. This limitation prevents them from acquiring modern farming inputs.
Solutions:
Loan and Credit with High Interest Rate:
High-interest rates on loans discourage farmers from borrowing, compounding the financial struggles they face.
Solution: Addressing this issue aligns with the solutions proposed for the poor financial status of farmers.
Illiteracy of Farmers:
The lack of education among farmers hinders their understanding of modern farming approaches.
Solutions:
Transportation Problem:
Inefficient transport systems and poorly maintained roads impede agricultural production, making it challenging for farmers to transport products to urban areas.
Solutions:
Inadequate Storage and Processing Facilities:
Farmers lack proper storage facilities, leading to wastage of farm produce or selling at low prices during periods of oversupply.
Solutions:
Poor Marketing System:
The existing agricultural product marketing system deprives farmers of fair rewards for their efforts.
Solution:
Government stabilization of agricultural produce prices through marketing boards.
Problems of Pests and Diseases:
Pests and diseases contribute to the deterioration of agricultural produce, increasing production costs and reducing farmers’ income.
Solutions:
Poor Agricultural Inputs:
Inaccessibility and high costs of fertilizers, pesticides, and machineries hinder farm yield.
Solutions:
Unfavorable Climate:
Adverse climate conditions discourage serious farming activities, leading to low yields.
Solutions:
Use of Crude Tools:
Limited access to modern farming tools affects production rates.
Solutions:
Inadequate Number of Extension Workers:
The scarcity of agricultural extension agents limits the dissemination of improved farming methods.
Solutions:
Inconsistent Government Policies on Agriculture:
Government policies often overlook peasant farmers, hindering their access to necessary farm inputs.
Solutions:
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Natural Hazard/Environmental Degradation:
Environmental factors such as flooding, soil erosion, and water logging contribute to the degradation of agricultural land.
Solutions:
The government plays a crucial role in shaping and guiding agricultural activities through its agriculture ministries. Responsibilities include formulating policies and programs, establishing regulations, providing financial support through loans and subsidies, funding research, creating farm settlements, and supplying essential services such as vaccines and quarantine measures.
Each country has its unique agricultural policies aimed at increasing food crop production, catering to evolving population needs, enhancing the quality and efficiency of major export crops, generating employment through large farms, supplying raw materials for local industries, and boosting livestock production for animal protein in diets.
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Once policies are in place, the government devises programs for their implementation. Programs encompass a forward-looking projection of actions, while plans involve organizing goals and the means to achieve them. In Nigeria, government programs for agricultural development include Extension Services, Farm Settlement Schemes, Agricultural Loan Schemes, Credit Facilities, River Basins Development Authorities, National Agricultural Insurance Scheme, subsidies, Agricultural education and research, quarantine and vaccines, Operation Feed the Nation, Green Revolution, Agricultural Development Project, DFRRI, and National Agricultural Land Development Agency.
Government provides or subsidizes farm inputs to enable peasant farmers to purchase and use them on their farms.
To discourage migration from rural to urban areas, the government aims to provide basic amenities in rural areas, allowing individuals to stay and engage in farming.
To prevent food wastage and address scarcity, the government establishes storage and processing facilities nationwide.
Qualified extension officers are employed by the government to bring new ideas and innovations to rural farmers.
In light of illiteracy among some Nigerian farmers, the government offers adult education to enable them to read and write, facilitating the acceptance of new agricultural techniques and innovations.
Government enforces plant quarantine regulations to prevent the introduction and spread of foreign plant diseases and pests.
Research institutes, such as the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria, Nigeria Institute for Oil Palm Research, International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, National Horticultural Research Institutes, Rubber Research Institute of Nigeria, Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, and Leather Research Institute of Nigeria, are set up by the government to enhance local crop varieties and animal breeds, solving agricultural challenges and improving production.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), established and owned by individuals or groups, focus on addressing humanity’s problems. Relevant NGOs in agriculture include the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, West African Rice Development Agency, Food and Agricultural Organization, Hunger Project (Ghana), and Catholic Relief Service (Gambia).
Areas of Relevance:
Science and technology have played pivotal roles in advancing agriculture not only in Nigeria but also in various nations worldwide. These contributions encompass:
Agro-allied industries, also known as agro-based industries, rely on agriculture for their raw materials to operate effectively. In simpler terms, these industries need a constant supply of agricultural raw materials to manufacture finished products crucial for human and animal consumption.
Outlined below are instances of agro-allied industries along with the respective raw materials utilized, excluding the use of a table:
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There exists a positive and diverse array of connections between agriculture and industries, including the subsequent aspects:
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Land represents a natural gift to humanity, constituting the solid portion of the Earth’s surface, encompassing soil and mineral resources where various forms of production, such as agriculture and livestock management, occur.
General Characteristics Of Land
Its supply is fixed, and its value increases steadily in response to growing demand. The supply of land is limited and not easily expandable. Land is immobile, unable to be relocated from abundant to scarce regions.
Land use can be categorized into agricultural and non-agricultural applications.
Agricultural Uses Of Land
Non-Agricultural Uses Of Land
The ownership of land in Nigeria varies from individual to communal ownership. Under individual ownership, families hold the land and have the right to farm, build, pledge it for money, or sell it. In contrast, communal ownership involves the community, which can be an extended family, village, or town, holding the land collectively. In this system, members cannot use the land against the community rulers’ wishes, and only annual crops can be planted.
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Land Tenure Definition
Land tenure refers to the system of land ownership or acquisition by individuals, families, communities, or government agencies, either for temporary or permanent use. It encompasses the rights and relationships established to control and use land.
Types Of Land Tenure Systems
Communal land tenure is a traditional form where land is considered the community’s property. All community members can use the land for agriculture, but selling any part of it is prohibited, treating it as a non-negotiable legacy.
  Advantages:
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  Disadvantages:
Inheritance-based tenure involves passing land from one generation to another, allowing the land to be used as collateral for loans and encouraging investment for agricultural production.
  Advantages:
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  Disadvantages:
Leasehold tenure permits a farmer to work on a piece of land for a fixed time under specified conditions, with rent paid to the landowner. The land reverts to the owner after the lease period unless renegotiated.
  Advantages:
  Disadvantages:
Free gift tenure involves donating or giving land for goodwill or as an incentive, enabling maximum land use for increased production.
  Advantages:
  Disadvantages:
In this system, land is owned by the state or government, and individuals on the land are tenants. While it ensures effective government control, excessive bureaucratic control may hinder individual initiative and lead to political abuses.
  Advantages:
  Disadvantages:
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Environmental Factors Impacting Agricultural Production (Crop And Animal Distribution And Production)
Described as the long-term average weather conditions of a location.
 Factors Of Climate: Comprising rainfall, relative humidity, temperature, light, wind, and pressure.
Each factor exerts its influence on agriculture, evident in the distribution of vegetation and crops across climatic zones. Favorable soil conditions lead to the development of dense evergreen forests.
The quantity and distribution of water precipitation in a specific area over time.
Rainfall Distribution And Pattern
West Africa experiences high temperatures year-round due to the southwest monsoon trade wind from the Atlantic Ocean. Coastal regions receive rainfall throughout the year, while the north faces reduced rainfall. Soil moisture affects crop and livestock production, with adapted crops and resistant animals in different regions.
Importance/Effect Of Rainfall
Determines crop and animal distribution.
Facilitates nutrient dissolution in the soil for plant use.
Essential for seed germination.
Excessive rainfall can lead to nutrient leaching and soil erosion.
Influences the area’s vegetation type.
Insufficient rainfall results in crop failure and poor yields.
The measure of heat energy or hotness/coolness of a place at a specific time.
Importance/Effects Of Temperature
Affects crop and animal distribution.
Necessary for seed germination.
Unfavorable temperatures may induce seed dormancy.
High temperatures can lead to premature fruit dropping and heat stress in livestock.
Importance/Influence
Critical for photosynthesis.
Impacts poultry production rates.
Affects evapotranspiration.
Influence/Importance
High winds may cause erosion.
Aids seed and fruit dispersal.
Facilitates pollination and disease spread.
Contributes to rainfall distribution and seasonal changes.
High wind velocity can damage crops.
Influence
Leads to rain formation.
Affects crop and animal performance.
High humidity in poultry results in moldiness.
Low humidity causes heat stress in animals.
Determines prevalent pests in an area.
High humidity fosters disease pathogen regrowth.
Biotic factors are living organisms or their activities that directly or indirectly influence other living organisms. In the context of crops and animal production, biotic factors play a significant role. Here are some examples:
Soil pH: Degree of acidity or alkalinity affecting plant growth, nutrient availability, and soil microorganisms.
Soil Texture: Fineness or coarseness determining soil type, fertility, crops to be grown, and erosion levels.
Soil Structure: Physical arrangement influencing soil fertility, water retention, aeration, and microorganisms.
Crops refer to plants that are cultivated and grown by humans for various purposes, typically for food, fiber, or other commercial uses. Common crops include grains like wheat, rice, and corn; vegetables like tomatoes, carrots, and potatoes; fruits like apples, oranges, and bananas; and cash crops like cotton and tobacco. The cultivation of crops is a fundamental aspect of agriculture and plays a crucial role in feeding and sustaining human populations worldwide.
Crops can be categorized based on (1) life cycle, (2) morphology, and (3) uses.
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The life cycle of a crop spans from seed planting to crop maturity. Crops can be divided into three groups:
Crops are classified based on their structure (form and shape):
Crops are classified according to their practical applications:
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Before the actual planting process, there are pre-planting operations, such as land clearing, stumping, and farm layout. Land clearing involves removing existing vegetation using tools like cutlasses, hoes, or machinery like bulldozers. Stumping, on the other hand, is the manual or mechanical removal of leftover tree stumps on the farm. Farm layout involves dividing the land into sections for optimal productivity.
Another crucial step is land preparation, where the soil is conditioned to meet the needs of the crops. This includes tillage, bed-making, heap-making, ridge-making, and leveling the soil after stumping. Tillage, whether done manually with a hoe or mechanically with a tractor-driven plough, breaks or turns the soil. Ploughing, considered primary tillage, forms clods of soil, while secondary tillage (harrowing) breaks down these clods into fine particles, ready for ridging. Other implements like spring tine cultivators and mould board ploughs are also used in tillage.
The importance of tillage lies in its ability to loosen the soil, allowing air and water to reach plant roots, facilitating root penetration, bringing plant nutrients within reach, exposing pests to the sun for control, and ensuring proper mixing of manure and fertilizer with the soil.
Ridging is the creation of ridges on the farm, sometimes in the form of heaps, to prevent erosion on slopes. Ridges also serve to provide water for plant use, support root penetration, and aid in the establishment of crops.
Planting Procedure
Planting operations involve the insertion of planting materials, such as cuttings or seeds, into the soil. When seeds are sown, they undergo germination, where the embryo resumes growth under favorable conditions, leading to the emergence of seedlings.
The Process A Seed Undergoes During Planting:
Let’s break down the process of seed planting and the stages involved:
For successful seed germination, certain conditions are necessary:
As for sowing methods, there are several techniques used to plant seeds:
Planting Space/Distance: The gap between sown or planted seeds, usually organized in rows with within-row spacing and between-row spacing.
Planting Time: The optimal time for planting, dependent on rainfall patterns.
Planting Depth: The depth at which seeds are sown in the soil.
Number of Seeds: The quantity of seeds sown per hole or planting point.
Seed Viability: The vitality or viability of the seed.
A nursery serves as a specialized area where young plants, known as seedlings, are nurtured and grown until they are ready to be transplanted into their permanent growing location, usually a field or garden. Seedlings are typically delicate and require controlled conditions to thrive, which nurseries provide.
In a nursery, various containers such as beds, trays, boxes, baskets, or polythene bags are used to hold the soil or growing medium in which the seedlings are cultivated. Each container type offers different advantages, depending on factors like the type of plant being grown, the available space, and the desired level of care and attention.
Crops like cocoa, kola, tomatoes, and citrus are commonly started in nurseries because they benefit from the controlled environment and specialized care provided in these settings. By starting plants in nurseries, growers can ensure optimal conditions for germination, early growth, and the development of strong, healthy seedlings before they are transplanted into the field for further growth and production. This process helps improve the overall success rate and yield of the crops.
Raising seeds in nurseries offers several advantages:
Overall, raising seeds in nurseries provides a strategic advantage in managing plant propagation, ensuring healthy and vigorous plants for transplantation into the field or garden.
Post-planting operations refer to activities conducted after the initial planting phase, aiming to create favorable conditions and ensure proper maintenance for plant growth. These operations encompass various tasks such as thinning, supplying, irrigation, the application of manure and fertilizer, mulching, weeding, harvesting, processing, and storage.
Thinning involves the removal of excess, weak, or poorly positioned seedlings from a seedbed after viable seeds have germinated. The advantages of thinning include preventing overcrowding, ensuring proper aeration for higher yields.
Supplying is the replanting of propagative materials in cases of germination failure, and prompt action is recommended. The benefits of supplying include maintaining the correct plant population and achieving uniform maturity.
Irrigation, or artificial watering during dry seasons, offers advantages such as moderating soil temperature for optimal plant growth and facilitating nutrient supply to plants.
Manuring and fertilizer application involve adding organic materials like poultry droppings or inorganic chemicals to the soil to maintain fertility. Organic manure types include green manure, farmyard manure, and compost, while inorganic fertilizers contain essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Care must be taken during application to avoid burning the plants.
Mulching, the covering of soil with plant parts like grass or leaves, provides benefits such as conserving soil moisture, regulating soil temperature, reducing weeds, preventing erosion, and adding humus to the soil.
Weeding, the removal of unwanted plants, is essential to prevent competition for nutrients, moisture, sunlight, and space between crops and weeds. It also helps in avoiding the buildup of pests and pathogens.
Harvesting involves the removal of matured crop parts using tools like cutlasses, hoes, knives, or sickles. Timely harvesting is crucial to prevent pest attacks or spoilage, especially for perishable crops.
Post-harvesting operations involve processing the produce to enhance acceptability and prevent spoilage. Some processing may start on the farm, while others are done in factories where machinery is available.
Finally, storage methods, such as barns, cribs, silos, refrigerators, baskets, or sacks, are employed to keep processed farm products for future use.
Maize (Zea mays):
Maize, commonly known as corn, is a member of the grass family (Gramineae). It produces grains, which serve as a staple food for both humans and livestock. The seed or fruit of maize is called caryopsis. Various varieties include sweet maize, flint maize, dent maize, flour maize, and popcorn.
Rice (Oryza sativa):
Rice, another member of the grass family (Gramineae), is cultivated for its caryopsis. Different types include swamp rice (Toma) and upland rice (Agbede).
Land Preparation:
Land preparation involves clearing the land and creating ridges, which can be done manually or with mechanical assistance for both maize and rice.
Climatic Requirements:
Maize thrives in temperatures ranging from 26°C to 30°C, with a rainfall requirement of 75cm to 150cm per annum. On the other hand, rice prefers temperatures around 20°C, with upland rice requiring rainfall between 75cm and 120cm and swamp rice needing over 250cm.
Soil Requirements:
Maize prefers sandy-loamy soil with a pH of 6-7, while rice does well in loamy-clayey soil.
Method of Propagation:
Both maize and rice are propagated by seeds.
Planting:
Planting for maize involves manual or mechanical methods with 2-3 seeds per hole. Rice can be planted through broadcasting, sowing, or drilling.
Seed Rate:
The recommended seed rates are 20-30kg per hectare for maize and 65kg per hectare for rice.
Spacing:
Maize requires a spacing of 80cm between rows and 30cm within rows, while rice varies between 25-30cm depending on the variety.
Cultural Practices:
Both maize and rice cultivation involve supplying nutrients, thinning, weeding, fertilizer application, and pest and disease control.
Maturity Period:
Maize matures within 90-120 days after planting, while rice takes 4-7 months depending on the variety.
Harvesting:
Harvesting for both crops can be done manually using hand tools or mechanically with combined harvesters.
Processing:
Maize can be consumed boiled or roasted and processed into corn flour or flakes. Rice goes through sun drying, threshing, winnowing, parboiling, hulling, and polishing.
Uses:
Maize is consumed by humans and animals and used in brewery industries. Rice is consumed by humans and animals.
Storage:
Maize is stored as dried cobs in cribs or silos, while rice is stored in silos or jute bags in processed form.
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata):
Cowpea, a member of the legume family, belongs to the leguminoseae family. It is rich in protein, and its fruit is called a pod.
Groundnut (Arachis hypogea):
Groundnut is a dual-purpose crop, serving as an oil and leguminous crop. It is mainly grown for its oil, with the seeds yielding about 40-45% excellent edible oil.
Varieties/Cultivar:
Cowpea has varieties such as erect type, creeping type, Ife brown, and Ife bimpe. Groundnut varieties include bunch or erect type, creeping type, Kano local, Kano 50, and castle cary.
Land Preparation, Climatic and Soil Requirements:
Similar to cereals, both cowpea and groundnut cultivation involve clearing the land and making ridges either manually or mechanically. Cowpea prefers a temperature of 27°C-35°C and rainfall of 60-125cm, while groundnut thrives in temperatures of 25°C-30°C and rainfall of 70-100cm. Cowpea grows well in well-drained sandy loamy soil, while groundnut prefers coarse-textured sandy loamy soil that is slightly acidic.
Method of Propagation and Planting:
Both cowpea and groundnut are propagated by seeds. Planting can be done manually or mechanically at 2-3 seeds per hole.
Seed Rate and Spacing:
Cowpea requires a seed rate of 20-25kg per hectare, and spacing depends on the type (erect or creeping). Groundnut has a seed rate of 30-35kg per hectare with varying spacing based on type (erect or creeping).
Cultural Practices:
Cultural practices for both include supplying nutrients, thinning, weeding, and pest and disease control. Groundnut typically does not require fertilizer application unless the soil is very poor.
Maturity Period and Harvesting:
Cowpea matures in 9-12 weeks after planting, depending on the variety. Harvesting involves hand-picking matured brown pods. Groundnut is ready for harvest when leaves turn yellow, and the plant is uprooted manually or mechanically, allowing for drying before pod removal.
Processing and Uses:
Processing for both includes sun drying, threshing, and winnowing. Cowpea serves as a source of plant protein, cover crop, forage legumes, and green manure. Groundnut is processed into oil, cake for human and animal consumption, and groundnut butter.
Storage:
Seeds of both cowpea and groundnut are stored in jute bags or silos, with precautions taken to prevent weevil attacks.
Yam (Dioscorea spp):
Yam belongs to the Dioscoreacea family and is a root and tuber crop rich in carbohydrates. Varieties include water yam, yellow yam, white yam, bitter yam, aerial yam, and sweet cassava.
Cassava (Manihot spp):
Cassava is a root and tuber crop rich in carbohydrates, easily cultivated, and able to grow in relatively poor soil. Varieties include sweet cassava and bitter cassava.
Both yam and cassava cultivation involve clearing the land and making ridges either manually or mechanically. Yam requires a temperature of 25°C-30°C and rainfall of 100cm-180cm, with a well-drained sandy-loamy soil rich in humus. Cassava prefers a temperature of 21°C-35°C, rainfall of 150cm-200cm, and dried loamy soil.
Method of Propagation and Planting:
Yam is propagated by yam seeds or yam sets, while cassava is propagated by stem cuttings (25-30cm long). Planting involves placing yam sets in holes on ridges or burying stem cuttings in a slanting position.
Seed Rate and Spacing:
Yam has a seed rate of 3-5 tonnes per hectare, with a spacing of 90cm x 100cm. Cassava has a planting spacing of 100cm x 100cm.
Cultural Practices:
Cultural practices for yam include mulching, weeding, fertilizer application, staking, and vine training. Cassava cultivation involves weeding and fertilizer application, with ground preparation usually sufficient for its growth.
Maturity Period and Harvesting:
Yam matures in 8-12 months, depending on the variety. Harvesting is done by gently digging the soil to remove the tuber. Cassava matures in 10-15 months, and harvesting involves digging the soil gently around the tubers and pulling the stem manually or using a cassava puller.
Processing and Uses:
Yam can be processed into yam flour and is consumed by humans and animals. Cassava is processed into cassava flour, garri, or foofoo, also consumed by humans and animals.
Storage:
Yam tubers are stored in barns, while cassava is stored in processed form in sacks.
In conclusion, the cultivation of cereals, legumes, and roots/tubers involves various practices such as land preparation, climatic considerations, soil requirements, methods of propagation, planting, cultural practices, maturity periods, harvesting, processing, uses, and storage. These aspects are crucial in ensuring successful and sustainable agricultural practices for these essential food crops.
Agricultural Ecology is the exploration of the relationships between crop plants, farm animals, and their surroundings. Derived from the Greek word “Oikos,” meaning home or dwelling place, it encompasses the study of living organisms and their interactions with the environment.
Agricultural Ecology is categorized into:
Autecology involves studying individual organisms or single species in their environment, such as examining a single cattle and its surroundings. On the other hand, Synecology explores the interrelationships between groups of organisms or species living together in a specific area, like studying different fishes in a fish pond in relation to their aquatic environment.
The term “Ecosystem” refers to a community of crop plants and farm animals functioning together with their non-living environment, comprising living factors (plants and animals) interacting with non-living factors in a farm environment.
The farm ecosystem comprises two primary components:
Biotic Components: Living things, including crop plants and farm animals, are grouped into two classes: Autotrophism and Heterotrophism.
(i) Autotrophism: Organisms, mainly crop plants, capable of synthesizing their own food through photosynthesis, using sunlight or chemicals.
(ii) Heterotrophism: Organisms, mainly farm animals, relying on plants directly or indirectly for food; herbivores or primary consumers feed directly on green plants.
Abiotic Components: Non-living things in the ecosystem include climatic factors (rainfall, temperature, wind, humidity, and sunlight), inorganic materials and nutrients (carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus), edaphic factors (soils, rocks, topography), and other factors (dust, storm, fire, and water).
In Mono-cropping/Sole Cropping
Mono-cropping involves cultivating a single type of crop on a farmland at a particular time. Interactions between biotic and abiotic factors include nutrient absorption from the soil, water intake, and carbon dioxide absorption for photosynthesis.
In Mixed Cropping System
Mixed cropping involves growing two or more crops on the same piece of land simultaneously. Interactions include nutrient addition to the soil by crops like cowpea and decomposition of crop leaves, enriching the soil.
In Mixed Farming
Mixed farming integrates crop cultivation and animal rearing on the same farmland. Interactions involve grass or crop residues serving as animal food, animal dung acting as organic manure, and crop residues contributing nutrients to the soil through decomposition.
A rock is a mineral material found on Earth, often comprising various mineral elements such as silica (which contains silicon and oxygen).
Rocks can be categorized into three primary groups based on their formation processes and appearances:
These rocks result from the cooling and solidification of molten magma that erupts from the Earth’s crust. Magma forms beneath the Earth’s surface due to high temperature and pressure, forcing its way upward through cracks. As it approaches the surface, it cools due to the lower temperature, solidifying into igneous rocks.
These rocks originate from the accumulation and consolidation of organic materials and weathered rocks over time. Natural agents like water, wind, and ice deposit sediments, which eventually cement together to form sedimentary rocks.
These rocks result from the transformation of igneous or sedimentary rocks under the combined effects of pressure and heat. The minerals in the unstable parent rock undergo changes in composition and texture. Examples include marble, quartzite, gneiss, schist, graphite, and slate.
The formation of soil is synonymous with the process known as weathering, which involves the breakdown of rocks into finer particles, ultimately giving rise to soil.
Soil formation, or rock weathering, encompasses three primary processes:
Physical Processes In Rock Weathering
Physical weathering is driven by various agents, including temperature, ice, rainfall, wind, and pressure.
Chemical Processes In Rock Weathering
Chemical weathering involves agents such as solution, hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation, and oxidation.
Biological Processes In Rock Weathering
Biological weathering involves the activities of plants and animals in breaking down rocks to create soil.
Soil formation is influenced by various factors, namely climate, parent materials, topography, biotic factors (living organisms), and the element of time.
Climate denotes the long-term average weather conditions in a specific location, encompassing factors such as sunlight, temperature, wind, relative humidity, rainfall, and pressure.
Rainfall: Erosion resulting from rainfall creates running water that gradually wears away rocks, contributing to soil formation. Raindrops’ impact can also break rocks, leading to soil formation.
Temperature: The cyclical heating and cooling of rocks cause continuous expansion and contraction, resulting in cracks that, over time, lead to soil development.
Wind: Particularly in desert regions, high wind velocity transports tiny rocks that collide, causing the breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces, ultimately forming soil.
Pressure: Elevated pressure on a suspended rock may cause it to fall and break into minute pieces, contributing to soil formation.
The physical and chemical characteristics of parent materials determine the type of soil produced. Soils predominantly derived from quartz minerals yield sandy soil, while those from micas and feldspars result in clayey soil.
Soil erosion is more prominent in sloped areas compared to flat land. Wind or water easily erodes soil and rock surfaces on slopes. As rock particles wash down, they break into smaller pieces due to the combined effects of various weathering processes.
Microorganisms, plants, and animals actively contribute to rock formation.
Time
The element of time is a crucial factor in soil formation. The process takes an extended period for mature soil to develop. The disintegration of small rock fragments into soil grains and the decay of plants to become part of the soil are gradual processes that require considerable time.
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