Table of Contents
The menu, initially conceived as a selling aid, had its roots in banquets featuring two courses, each comprising a range of dishes numbering anywhere from 10 to 40. The first set, called “entrée,” was placed on the table before diners arrived, and once consumed, it was replaced by another set known as “relieves or removes.” The term “menu” originated in the 18th century, with the practice of listing meal courses dating back even further. The modern menu emerged in the early 19th century at the Parsan Restaurant of the Palais-Royas, adhering to a classic sequence whose specifics depend on the establishment’s size and class.
A menu serves as a comprehensive list of available foods and beverages in a catering establishment. Functioning as a selling aid and a means of communication, it informs customers about the offerings and allows them to make personal choices at their convenience.
A food menu plays a vital role in a restaurant:
The classic menu sequence includes various courses:
Modern menus categorize these courses into starters, main courses, desserts, and beverages. The menu’s scope includes appetizers, main meals, desserts, and beverages, along with variations like continental and ethnic menus.
Menu planning involves the proactive determination of food or dish types to be featured in a meal. This becomes essential when preparing and serving large quantities of food to individuals with diverse tastes and dietary needs. The purpose of menu planning is to meet the nutritional requirements of family members or guests.
Customer preferences are influenced by several factors:
A menu is a compilation of dishes available for serving during a meal and is often used as a selling aid.
A la carte refers to cooking dishes to order, with each item individually priced. Customers can choose from a variety of dishes at different prices to create their own menu, which may include one, two, or more courses. True a la carte dishes are prepared upon order, and customers should be prepared for a waiting period.
Examples of A La Carte Menu
SAMPLE 1
Starter
Main Subject
Desserts
Sommelier recommended wine
SAMPLE 2
It is a set menu forming a complete meal at a set price, usually with choices within each course. The term ‘menu du jour’ is sometimes used instead.
Example of Table D’hote Menu
SAMPLE 1 (N2850 for three-course meal)
Sommelier recommended wine
SAMPLE 2
A la carte:
This is also known as the ‘menu of the day’ or ‘plat du jour,’ combining a la carte, table d’hote, and plat du jour menus.
Cyclical menus cover a specific period, such as one month or three months, and consist of set menus for establishments like restaurants, cafeterias, and hospitals. The menu is reused at the end of each period.
Advantages Of Cyclical Menu
Disadvantages Of Cyclical Menu
A tasting menu is a set meal with a range of courses, typically between 6 and 10. It is offered in restaurants where the chef provides a sample of the main menu’s dishes. It may include a flight of wine.
Hospital menus are provided to patients the day before services, allowing them to indicate their preferences. Both National Health Service and private hospitals cater to vegetarians and accommodate religious requirements.
Menus for people at work vary based on company policies. They may offer a call order a la carte with items commonly consumed in the area.
Schools emphasize healthy eating and a balanced diet, particularly in boarding schools. Menus may include children’s favorite foods and appropriately sized portions for various cultural and religious backgrounds.
Also known as a specialty menu, it can be a set-priced menu or individually priced dishes specializing in the food of a particular country, religion, or a specific dietary requirement. It is usually changed daily and may be more affordable.
Menus for banquets or functions of all kinds.
Include breakfast, tea, dinner, luncheon.
Breakfast serves as the initial and crucial meal of the day, breaking the overnight fast, and is imperative not to skip. It is advisable for breakfast to be light yet substantial, avoiding oily and heavy foods. The goal is for breakfast to provide sustenance until lunch. In hospitality settings like hotels, breakfast may be served in the hotel restaurant, dining room, a designated breakfast room, or even in the hotel guest’s bedroom or suite.
Café complet:
The term “café complet” is commonly used in continental Europe, referring to a continental breakfast with coffee as the primary beverage. Alternatively, the term “the complet” may include tea instead (teacomplet).
Café simple or the simple:
“Café simple” or “the simple” entails only a beverage (coffee or tea) without any accompanying food, constituting a minimalist breakfast.
Continental Breakfast:
This breakfast variety features dishes from various foreign countries, typically including hot bread items, preserves, juice, and a selection of beverages. The menu has expanded to encompass a broader range, incorporating cheese, assorted bread products, and a variety of beverages.
Also known as English or British breakfast, this meal comprises two to eight courses and typically includes a substantial cooked main course. The extensive menu provides multiple choices for customers.
Cover for Full Breakfast:
Various items are arranged as part of mise-en-place before the customer is seated, with additional items placed on the table upon seating.
This breakfast option comprises two or more courses featuring dishes made from locally grown or processed food common to various ethnic groups.
Example of a local breakfast menu
Examples of Breakfast Menu Items:
Lunch
Representing the primary meal of the day, lunch is typically consumed in the afternoon as the midday repast. It encompasses a broad range of options, such as plate du jour, carte du jour, continental menu, or local menu. The customary order involves the serving of soup or protein first.
Luncheon
This midday meal is specifically designed as part of entertaining guests during a social gathering. It constitutes an afternoon event where a light meal is provided in conjunction with a meeting or other special occasion.
For special occasions in our localities, the following dishes are generally well-received:
Chicken jollof rice
Turkey fried rice
Beef coconut rice
The term “Carte du jour” translates to “menu of the day.” This concept denotes a distinct menu provided to guests, separate from the regular menu offerings. It amalgamates elements from the à la carte, table d’hôte, and plat du jour menus, each item priced accordingly. This structure allows for individual pricing, as seen in the à la carte menu, or a collective price for the daily special. Essentially, establishments adopting this approach offer flexibility, ensuring patrons have a variety of choices to suit their preferences.
Starter
Main Subject
Desserts
Wine Recommendations
Daily Special Menu
Chocolate pudding with cream caramel: N1,000
Table D’hôte
Price: N10,000.00
Daily Special Menu
This is also known as a speciality menu. It can be a set-priced menu or individually priced menu or individually priced dish specializing in the food of a particular country, religion or a specialized food itself. The speciality could be ethnic, i.e. food on the menu could reflect Chinese, Indian, Igbo, Hausa, Yoruba, Greek, Africa or specialty like diabetic, hypertensive etc. It is usually changed daily and cheaper or better.
In Nigeria, different ethnic groups have their own traditional dishes/ meal. Examples are:
These are also called civilized dishes. These are dishes that are not naturally taken by the native people. Some of these foreign dishes are:
Coffee is derived from the roasted beans of the coffee tree and is cultivated and shipped from various regions, including South America, India, the Middle East, and the West Indies, such as Sumatra. Brazil holds the title of the world’s largest coffee producer, followed by Colombia in second place, the Ivory Coast in third, and Indonesia in fourth.
Methods of Bulk Coffee Making and Service:
Dissolving Method (Instant):
Percolation Method:
Filtration Method:
Vacuum Infusion:
Espresso Method:
Still Set Method:
Serving Specialty and Irish Coffee:
The rate of a chemical reaction is defined as the quantity of reactants converted or products formed per unit time. Typically, it is determined experimentally by measuring the change in concentration of one of the reaction components over time.
Various properties can change with time and be used to measure the rate of reaction, including:
The rate curve typically exhibits the following features:
Rate-related parameters such as average rate of reaction and rate at a particular instant during the reaction can be determined from the rate curve.
The collision theory posits that for a chemical reaction to occur, reactant particles must collide with a certain minimum amount of energy known as activation energy. Effective collisions, those resulting in a chemical reaction, require this minimum energy. Activation energy is the energy barrier that reactants must overcome for the reaction to take place.
Factors influencing reaction rate according to the collision theory include:
Various factors affecting these features can alter the rate of reaction, including the nature of reactants, concentration/pressure (for gases) of reactants, surface area of reactants, temperature of the reaction mixture, presence of light, and the presence of catalysts.
Effect of Nature of Reactants
Different substances exhibit different rates of reaction under the same conditions due to their inherent chemical nature. For example, when dilute HCl reacts with zinc, iron, and gold, hydrogen gas is evolved at varying rates.
Effect of Concentration of Reactants
Higher concentration results in more frequent collisions among particles, leading to increased effective collisions and a higher rate of reaction. Changes in reactant concentration correspondingly affect the reaction rate.
Effect of Surface Area Of Reactants
Involvement of solid reactants introduces the importance of surface area; powdered solids with larger surface areas exhibit higher reaction rates than lumped solids.
Effect of Temperature
Increasing temperature increases the reaction rate by supplying energy to reactant particles. This leads to a higher frequency of collisions and more effective collisions, thereby accelerating the reaction. Decreasing temperature has the opposite effect.
Effect of Light
Certain reactions are influenced by light intensity, with higher intensity increasing the reaction rate. Photochemical reactions, such as those involving hydrogen and chlorine or the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, exemplify this dependence on light.
Effect of Catalyst
Catalysts influence reaction rates by altering the activation energy without undergoing any permanent change themselves. Positive catalysts lower activation energy, increasing the reaction rate, while negative catalysts or inhibitors increase activation energy, slowing down the reaction.
Energy
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. It exists in different forms like: heat, light, sound, electrical, potentials (stored), kinetic etc.
Laws of Conservation of Energy
Energy can be changed from one form to another. The total amount of energy before and after the change remains the same. This observation is stated in the law of conservation of energy which states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be changed from one form to another. There are types of energy such as chemical energy, heat energy, and light energy.
Heat Content (Enthalpy) of A Substance
Heat content or Enthalpy of a substance is the characteristic internal energy possess by the substance, which is due to the structure and physical state of a substance. The potential energy is due to the structure while the kinetic energy is due to the physical state. Enthalpy of one substance is different from another. Total enthalpy cannot be measured but only enthalpy change. Generally, an enthalpy change (∆H) is the heat that would be exchanged with the surrounding, that is, it is the amount of energy involved in a reaction.
Thus,
Enthalpy change = Heat of products – Heat of reactants
That is, ∆H = Hproducts – Hreactants
The enthalpy change of a given reaction is always written side by side with the given equation and it may be either a positive or negative value.
Example: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = -57.3kJ
Unit of enthalpy change(∆H) is Joules(J) or kilojoules(kJ)
Exothermic Reaction
A chemical reaction in which heat is given off to the surrounding is known as exothermic reaction. When an exothermic reaction occurs, heat is liberated and transferred from the chemicals to the surroundings and the temperature of the reaction mixture rises. The reaction vessel will feel hot.
Examples of exothermic reactions include:
Reaction between calcium oxide and water
Reaction between an acid and a base.
Combustion of fuel
Corrosion of metals
Respiration
In exothermic reaction, enthalpy change is negative since the heat content of the products is less than the heat content of the reactants.
Endothermic Reaction
An Endothermic reaction is a type of reaction in which heat is absorbed from the surroundings. When an endothermic reaction occurs, heat energy is absorbed and transferred from the surrounding to the reactants and the temperature of the reaction mixture falls. The reaction vessel will feel cold.
Examples of endothermic reactions are:
Thermal decomposition of calcium trioxocarbonate (IV)
Thermal dissociation of ammonium chloride
Action of light on silver bromide in photographic film
Photosynthesis in plants
In endothermic reaction, the heat content of the product is more than the heat content of the reactant; hence the enthalpy change is positive.
Energy Level Diagrams
Energy changes can be presented by diagrams, which shows at once whether reactions are exothermic or endothermic.
During chemical reactions, chemical bonds are broken, atoms are regrouped and new bonds are formed. Bond breaking requires energy and bond forming evolves energy. The minimum amount of energy required for bond breaking is called activation energy. While bond breaking is endothermic, bond forming is exothermic. Thus, heat of reaction comes from breaking and forming of chemicals bond. Heat reaction is negative [exothermic] when bond-breaking energy is less than bond forming energy. Heat of reaction is positive [endothermic] when bond-breaking energy is more than bond forming energy.
Heat of Formation
The amount of heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance is formed from its elements is known as heat of formation [or enthalpy of formation].
The standard heat of formation of a substance(∆Hfθ) is the heat evolved or absorbed, when one mole of that substance is formed from its elements under standard conditions.
For the formation of 1 mole of liquid water, the equation is
H2(g) + 1/2O2(g)® H2O(1) ∆Hfθ = – 285kJmol-1
Thus, ∆Hfθ of water = – 285kJmol-1
Heat of Neutralization
Neutralization is an exothermic reaction. The amount of heat evolved during a neutralization reaction in which one mole of water is formed is known as the heat of neutralization (or enthalpy of neutralization).The standard heat of neutralization ∆Hnθ is the amount of heat evolved when 1 mole of hydrogen ions, H+, from an acid reacts with 1 mole of hydroxide ions, OH–, from an alkali to form 1 mole of water under standard conditions. Heat of neutralization is also known as heat of formation of one mole of water from its ionic components.
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l) ∆Hnθ = – 57.4kJmol-1
Heat of Combustion
Combustion reaction is always exothermic. The amount of heat evolved when one mole of a substance is burned completely in oxygen is known as the heat of combustion or enthalpy of combustion. The standard heat of combustion of a substance, ∆HCθ; is the heat evolved when one mole of the substance is burned completely in oxygen under standard conditions.
A bomb calorimeter is usually used for accurate determination of heat of combustion.
Heat of combustion can be determined from the relation below:
Heat of combustion = Heat energy produced x molar mass
Mass burnt 1
When the heat evolved by the burning substance is used to raise the temperature of a known mass of water, then the expression for heat of combustion can be given as:
Heat of combustion = mC∆θ x molar mass
Mass burnt 1
Where m = mass of water
C = Specific heat capacity of water
∆θ = change in temperature, that is, θ2 – θ1
Heat of Solution
Heat of solution can be exothermic or endothermic. Heat of solution is the heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance is dissolved in so much water that further dilution results in no detectable heat change.
Standard heat of solution, ∆Hsθ , is the amount of heat evolved or absorbed when 1 mole of substance is dissolved in so much water that further dilution results in no detectable heat change at standard conditions.
Heat of combustion
Heat of neutralization
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the study of relationship between heat and other forms of energy. System in thermodynamics is any part of the universe chosen for thermodynamics consideration, i.e. the physical and chemical phenomenon or process occurring in a given environment. A system can be isolated, closed or open. Surrounding is the environment in which a phenomenon or a process occurs.
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but may be converted from one form to another.
In thermodynamics, heat is represented by q and other forms of energy are referred to as work denoted by w. The conditions or state of a chemical system is changed when:
Heat is evolved or absorbed, and / or
Work is done on or by the system
In any case, the internal energy, U, of the system is affected and it is changed.
From first law, heat is changed into internal energy of the system it may be represented by
change in internal energy = Heat absorbed by the system + Work done by the system
i.e. U = q + w
Work done by the system is negative since this lead to decrease in internal energy, therefore:
U = q – w
For a gaseous system, w = P V
U = q – P V
U = H – P V
H = U – P V
Evaluation
State the first law of thermodynamic
Calculate: (a) the heat adsorbed by a system when it does 72J of work and its internal energy decreases by 90J(b) U for a gas that releases 35J of heat and has 128J of work done on it.
Second Law of Thermodynamic
The second law of thermodynamic states that a spontaneous process occurs only if there is an increase in the entropy of a system and its surroundings
Factors which determines the spontaneously of a process are:
Enthalpy, H: The heat content of the substances involved
entropy, S: The measure of degree of disorderliness or randomness of a substance free energy G: The energy which is available for doing work.
Entropy (S)
Entropy is the measure of degree of disorderliness or randomness of a system. The standard entropy change (∆Sθ) is a state function because it depends on the initial and final state of the system. That is:
∆Sθ = Sθproducts – Sθreactants
The S.Iunit of is JK-1mol-1
Entropy increases from solid to liquid to gaseous state because as you go from solid to liquid to gaseous state, randomness increases, that is; ∆Sθ tends to positive.
For a reversible process at constant temperature,
S = H/T
When ∆S is positive, there is increase in entropy. When ∆S is negative there is decrease in the entropy of a system.
The free energy of a system is the energy which is available for doing work in the system; that is, the driving force that brings about a chemical change.
The standard free energy change (∆Gθ) is a state function because it depends on the initial and final state of the system. That is:
∆Gθ = Gθproducts – Gθreactants
Free energy takes into account the effect of the enthalpy and entropy factors as represented in the equation below:
G = H-TS
For a change at constant temperature,
G = H – T S
Note:
When G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous or feasible.
When G is positive, the reaction is not spontaneous, unless the resultant effect of both H and S leads to a net decrease in G
When G is zero, the system is in equilibrium
Example: The reaction: C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
is carried out at a temperature of 57oC. If the enthalpy change is -500J and the entropy change is +15J.Calculate the free energy change
Solution:
G = H – T S
= -5000 – (57 + 273) x (+15)
= -5000 – 330 x 15
= -5000 – (+4950)
= -5000 – 4950
= -9950J or -9.950kJ
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