Human interactions within society often involve diverse and conflicting interests. To address the need for regulating these conflicts and establishing a peaceful society, governments were formed. Without agencies or bodies to oversee activities, society could devolve into what Thomas Hobbes described as a primitive state—solitary, poor, wicked, and short-lived.
To prevent confusion and disorder, individuals must relinquish their natural rights to a state entity known as the government. The absence of government leads to anarchy, a state characterized by disorder and lawlessness where might prevails.
Government comprises individuals and institutions responsible for creating and enforcing laws within a state. It serves as the instrument through which the state’s purpose is formulated, expressed, and achieved—a collective agency established by the political community to promote the general welfare.
Government As A Process Or Art Of Governing
Viewed as a process or art of governing, government involves organs vested with power and authority to maintain peace, security, and enact laws. By formulating and implementing policies, the governing process regulates citizens’ activities and manages state affairs.
For effective governance, power is divided among three distinct but complementary organs: the Executive, the Legislature, and the Judiciary. The Legislature formulates laws and passes bills to the Executive for execution, while the Judiciary interprets laws and administers justice.
Government As An Academic Field Of Study
As a school subject, government delves into the entire structure and process of political institutions. It aids in comprehending the roles of government arms in administering state affairs.
Additionally, government studies international organizations with which a state has membership and explores relationships between states globally. This academic discipline is known as political science.
Features/Characteristics Of Government
Government features:
Power: The government possesses the authority to influence citizens and implement policies, serving as a fundamental tool for upholding law and order.
Law: The constitution comprises a set of rules governing citizen behaviour, defining rights and obligations, as well as the functions of the government.
Revenue: To fund its policies, the government relies on revenue generation through import duties and tax collection.
Personnel: Various individuals, such as public servants, judges, and police, contribute to the administration of government affairs.
Public Support: The government’s legitimacy and right to rule hinge on public support, an essential factor for its proper functioning.
Welfare Services: The government assumes the responsibility of providing essential amenities like roads, water, and electricity to justify its existence.
Government functions:
Lawmaking: Government formulates laws to regulate the conduct of citizens.
Maintenance of Law and Order: The primary function involves ensuring law and order within the state, enforced by agencies like the police.
Defense of the Country: Protecting citizens from external threats is a fundamental duty, executed by the armed forces.
Protection of Lives and Properties: The government safeguards its citizens, with the police and law courts responsible for protection.
Administration of Justice: Judicial branches settle disputes and administer justice, with prisons designated for the punishment of offenders.
Provision of Social Services: Government provides citizens with essential services like hospitals, roads, and water through tax funding.
Provision of Employment Opportunities: Creating employment opportunities is a task aimed at fostering economic independence among citizens.
Economic Functions: Government regulates economic activities to protect and ensure economic growth through careful planning and execution of economic policies.
Political Functions: Conducting free and fair elections is crucial for ensuring a smooth and peaceful change of government, maintaining a stable political atmosphere.
Maintaining External Relations: Establishing and maintaining relations with friendly nations is vital, often centered around trade, politics, and health, facilitated through embassies and high commissions.
Why study government:
Political Education: Studying government provides political education and prepares individuals to actively participate in the governance of their country.
Understanding Rights and Duties: Government studies help citizens understand their rights, duties, and obligations and how to defend them effectively.
System of Government: Knowledge of government enables a better understanding of the adopted system in a country and its implications.
Spirit of Patriotism: Government studies instill a sense of patriotism and nationalism among individuals.
Political Awareness: Understanding government prevents political ignorance and explains international affiliations of countries.
Political Engagement: Government studies broaden political horizons, stimulating citizen interest in government activities to prevent tyranny and dictatorship.
Political Evaluation: The ultimate goal is to cultivate political scientists who can assess the performance of political leaders and parties.
Support for Democracy: Government studies contribute to the promotion and practice of democracy and the rule of law.
Basic Concepts Of Government 1
Power
Power is the capacity to influence and direct the actions of others, regardless of their desires. It involves the ability to enforce decisions or commands through the possession of means of sanctions, compelling individuals to adhere to established rules. Sanctions or punishments are often administered for non-compliance.
Forms Of Power
Political Power: This type of power is wielded by the government in managing state affairs. Decisions made through political power are binding on the state, residing in the three branches of government and derived from the constitution.
Physical Power: Referred to as naked power, this involves the use of force, often by entities like the police or security services, to compel obedience. It may result in pain, injury, or death.
Military Power: Utilized to forcefully change governments, suppress unrest, and defend a state’s internal and external territories.
Economic Power: Involves leveraging economic resources to control others’ actions. Wealthy individuals may influence government policies to serve their interests, exercising economic power over the less affluent.
Sources Of Power
Constitution: In democratic states, power is conferred through the constitution, and individuals gain authority through the ballot box.
Inheritance: In many societies, power is inherited, with those born into royal families having the right to ascend to power.
Coercion/Force: Obtained through the use of force, such as military interventions, as seen in coup d’états in some African countries.
Charisma: Some individuals gain power through personal qualities and influence, exemplified by leaders like Nelson Mandela, Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo, and Kwame Nkrumah.
Position of Authority: Expert knowledge in various domains grants power, but it diminishes when the person vacates the relevant position.
Wealth: Control of economic resources provides an advantage in acquiring power, aligning with the principle of economic determinism.
Authority
Authority refers to the right to command, direct others, and enforce obedience, deriving power from one’s office and the people’s consent.
Even military governments seek to legitimize their authority by obtaining the people’s consent in democratic societies.
Sources Of Political Authority
Max Weber identified three sources of political authority:
Traditional Authority: Based on customs and traditions, hereditary, and rooted in the norms of a society, granting power to figures like Obas, Emirs, and Obis.
Legal Authority: Derived from the rules and regulations governing a society, whether written or unwritten.
Charismatic Authority: Arises from extraordinary qualities that enable a person to lead others, rooted in charisma.
Types Of Authority
Political Authority: The right of political office holders to command, make, and enforce policies conferred by the constitution.
Military Authority: The right of the armed forces to use force for maintaining law and order and ensuring security.
Traditional Authority: Legitimized by customs and tradition, acquired through inheritance.
Delegated Authority: Authority conferred on a subordinate for specific powers on specified matters.
Technical Authority: Accepted based on expertise in a recognized field.
Judicial Authority: The authority of courts and judges to issue fines or punishments.
Administrative Authority: The right of professionals like civil servants and managers to make decisions in their respective offices and secure obedience.
Basic Concepts In Government 2
Legitimacy
The concept of legitimacy finds its roots in the Latin term ‘legitimus,’ signifying adherence to the law. In the realm of governance, it denotes the acknowledgement of a political system by the populace under established rules and regulations.
A government earns legitimacy when it attains office through universally recognized and accepted means, such as free and fair elections. Moreover, the backing of the people towards the ruling government plays a pivotal role, as the stability of a government relies heavily on popular support.
Several factors influence legitimacy:
Leadership: Effective leadership enhances the perception of a regime’s legitimacy.
Common National Symbols: Shared national symbols, such as anthems, pledges, flags, and passports, contribute to the fostering of legitimacy. The observance of national holidays and the recognition of common heroes also play a role.
Popular Participation: Legitimacy requires the involvement of various interest groups like political parties, pressure groups, and trade unions in government affairs.
Foreign Diplomacy: A government’s legitimacy is influenced by the foreign policies it adopts, affecting its standing among other nations.
Good Governance: When a government meets the expectations of its people by implementing sound policies, it reinforces its legitimacy.
Popular Support: In modern democracies, the party garnering the most support in an election forms the legitimate government.
Sovereignty
Sovereignty, defined as the supreme power within a state, allows full legal authority over internal affairs without external control. Introduced by French political philosopher Jean Bodin, sovereignty signifies the absolute power of a state to create and enforce laws within its borders.
Types of sovereignty include legal, political, internal, external, de-facto, and de-jure sovereignty. Sovereignty is characterized by indivisibility, permanence, absoluteness, absence of foreign control, comprehensiveness, and inalienability.
Democracy
Democracy, rooted in the Greek words “Demos” (people) and “Kratia” (rule), is a government system based on popular consent. Abraham Lincoln defines it as government by the people, for the people. Democracy can be direct or indirect, with the latter involving the election of representatives.
Features of democracy include periodic free and fair elections, recognition and protection of fundamental human rights, majority rule, equality before the law, existence of opposition parties, allowance for public opinions, independent judiciary, separation of powers, freedom of the press, and adherence to the rule of law.
Demerits of democracy include potential dangers in illiterate societies, slow decision-making processes, emphasis on quantity over quality in vote counting, and challenges such as thuggery, violence, bribery, and corruption during elections, as well as the high cost of running large political parties.
Basic Concepts Of Government 3
Communalism
Communalism denotes a socio-political structure where land, the primary means of production, is collectively owned. In a communal society, members collectively pursue shared objectives, and assets like land are owned communally, and distributed equally among members. This system prioritizes resource utilization for the collective benefit of all.
Features of Communalism:
Absence of class systems; collaboration is the norm.
Collective ownership of property.
Prohibition of private property ownership for individuals.
Shared cultural identity among members.
Barter trade as the primary means of exchange.
Spirit of cooperation prevails in activities like building houses and farming.
Labor is not commodified, leading to the absence of exploitation.
Emphasis on collective interests over individual goals.
Communities operate autonomously with distinct identities.
Feudalism
Feudalism is a governance system centred around land ownership and control, prevalent in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. Kings and Emperors owned and controlled land, granting it to vassals who, in return, provided services or fought on behalf of the king. Industrialization eventually led to the demise of feudalism, giving rise to capitalist influences and transforming the relationship between landowners and labourers.
Features of Feudalism:
Grounded in land ownership as the governing principle.
Lands owned and controlled by kings or emperors.
Serfs worked and served the king in exchange for land use.
Lords were responsible for protecting the serfs.
Feudal tenants are obligated to offer military assistance to the landowner.
Lords held legislative, military, executive, and judicial power over vassals.
Class system: Barons or landowners and serfs or vassals without land.
Persistent state of war and insecurity.
Merits of Feudalism:
Paved the way for the development of capitalism.
Established order and prevent anarchy.
Provided serfs with a certain level of security.
Granted freed slaves limited freedom through contracts with a lord.
Cultivated self-reliance and a love for personal freedom among large landlords.
Demerits of Feudalism:
Serfs faced brutal oppression and exploitation.
Fueled the rise of autocratic leaders with unchecked power.
Loyalty and obedience directed towards landowners, not the central government.
State division into semi-independent entities hindered cohesive governance.
Absence of a national government structure.
Basic concepts in government 4.
Socialism
Socialism can be characterized as an ideology advocating collective ownership, control, and organization of the means of production, distribution, and exchange of goods and services. In this system, the government manages and operates most factors of production and distribution on behalf of citizens, producing goods and services to satisfy the needs of the entire populace rather than pursue profit.
Formulated by Karl Marx, a German philosopher (1816 – 1883), this ideology aimed to address the perceived issues of capitalism.
Key Features of Socialism:
The government owns and controls nearly all means of production and distribution.
Goods and services are produced based on citizens’ needs rather than for profit.
Central planning governs production, distribution, and exchange.
Full employment is a fundamental principle.
Socialism promotes equality and equal opportunities.
Wealth distribution aligns with individual contributions and needs.
Communism
Communism represents the highest stage of socialism, where the government fully controls all means of production and distribution, abolishing individual ownership of property.
Also rooted in Karl Marx’s ideology, communism posits that the state owns everything, distributing resources to citizens based on their needs and abilities. However, no country has ever fully implemented communism.
Key Features of Communism:
Advocates for the complete abolition of government, leading to a stateless society.
Aims for a classless society with social and economic equality.
Calls for the compulsory confiscation of private properties without compensation.
Involves a centrally planned economy and the use of force to achieve communist goals.
Citizens receive resources according to their needs and abilities.
Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic ideology that allows individuals to own and control the means of production, distribution, and exchange in a country, with minimal government involvement.
Practised globally after the decline of socialism in the 1900s, capitalism involves private individuals participating in all economic sectors, primarily driven by the motive of profit.
Key Features of Capitalism:
Private individuals can own and control most means of production and distribution.
Government participation is minimal.
Consumers have a wide range of choices.
Prices and distribution of essential commodities are determined by demand and supply.
Profit is the primary motivation for businesses.
Promotes competition and economic rivalry among firms and consumers.
Features a class society with peasants, bourgeoisie, and proletariat.
In a capitalist society, democratic principles, freedom of enterprise, advanced technology, and personal liberties are often associated with this economic ideology.
Basic Concepts in Government 5.
Fascism
Fascism represents an ideology centered on the notions of force and absolute obedience to authority. It is considered a philosophy, principle, and structure of an assertive nationalist and anti-communist dictatorship.
Originating as a movement in Italy in 1922, fascism reached its culmination under Benito Mussolini in 1943. This ideology denounces both capitalism and socialism, eschews peace, democracy, and the rule of law, instead extolling the virtues of war.
Key Features of Fascism:
Advocates aggressive nationalism.
Elevates the political leader to supreme and revered status.
Grants the leader the authority to enact all laws, with rights and authority derived solely from them.
Suppresses opposition through force when necessary.
Imposes absolute control over citizens’ lives, including aspects such as religion and education.
Restricts political participation to the elite, excluding the majority.
Rejects popular views, the law of God, and religion, glorifying war as the path to peace.
Nazism
Nazism, a form of totalitarianism, was practiced in Germany under Adolf Hitler from 1933 to 1945. This political ideology staunchly asserts the superiority of the German race over the individual.
Features of Nazism:
Believes the leader is always right, controlling all governmental powers.
Permits only one political party – the Nazist political party.
Political party leaders automatically hold government leadership positions.
Ensures government ownership and control of mass media.
Suppresses opposition, prohibiting labor unions and other pressure groups.
Centrally controls the economy.
Disregards the rule of law and fundamental human rights.
Utilizes force and brutality as primary tools of oppression.
Totalitarianism
Totalitarianism, synonymous with Authoritarianism, is a governmental form marked by absolute control over individuals, ideas, and properties. This system allows only one political party to exist and govern within the state.
Features of Totalitarianism:
Features a supreme authority controlling all aspects of governance.
Allows for only one dominant political party, eliminating any room for opposition.
Employs force and brutality to govern the masses.
Absence of the rule of law under an autocratic government.
Government control over mass media.
Enforces a single ideology and philosophy.
Examples of Totalitarianism include the Nazist government in Germany and the Fascist rule in Italy.
Basic Concepts in Government 6.
Definition of a State:
A state is essentially a politically organized community of people residing within a specific geographical territory. It is characterized by an organized government that operates independently, possesses coercive power to enforce obedience, and is free from external control.
Characteristics of a State:
Population: A state must have a certain number of people without specified minimum or maximum limits.
Territory: The state needs a defined territory, encompassing land, air, and natural features, with distinct boundaries.
Government: An effective state is governed by a system that formulates and enforces laws, ensuring its existence and functionality.
Sovereignty: The state has the authority to make and enforce laws within its territory without external influence.
Recognition: Internally and externally, the state must be acknowledged by other nations in the international arena.
Membership: Citizenship is mandatory for individuals, acquired either by birth or other means.
Law: The state must have a legal system that binds all residents and groups, outlined in its constitution.
Permanence: A state is considered permanent, remaining intact unless conquered in war.
Definition of a Nation:
A nation is a collective of people united by common cultural ties, shared origins, and descent. It shares political aspirations and a consciousness of unity, known as “nationalism.”
Comparison of State and Nation:
A nation possesses all attributes of a state, except sovereignty. To be recognized as a state, a nation must gain political independence and have supreme power to make and enforce laws. The key distinction lies in sovereignty.
Political Culture:
Political culture encompasses attitudes, beliefs, emotions, sentiments, ideas, and values guiding people’s political behavior within a state. It develops over time, influencing aspects such as election methods, tolerance, and factors promoting democracy.
Components of Political Culture:
Cognitive Orientation: People’s knowledge about the political system and beliefs about government.
Evaluative Orientation: The citizens’ ability to assess government performance and the efficiency of policies.
Affective Orientation: People’s feelings toward the political system, government, and political institutions.
Factors Influencing Political Culture:
Different Ethnicity: Distinct cultural beliefs within tribes impact political culture.
Historical Development: Society’s historical evolution shapes and influences its political culture.
Colonial Mentality: European colonial legacies impact political structures and beliefs in regions like Africa, Latin America, and Asia.
Socio-economic Structure: Urban and developed societies tend to have higher educational standards and greater participation in decision-making.
Political Instability: Continuous instability in the political system affects people’s attitudes and values towards politics negatively.
Political Socialization
Political socialization is the educational process through which citizens of a nation absorb the values, attitudes, and beliefs inherent in its political system. This transmission of political culture from one generation to the next is vital for fostering a cohesive societal understanding of governance.
In this process, citizens become politically conscious and understand their roles within the system. Political socialization instils in them a sense of pride, patriotism, loyalty, and a deep connection to their nation.
Several agents play pivotal roles in political socialization:
The Family: As the primary social unit, families impart initial political upbringing to children through observation and emulation.
The School: Educational institutions provide formal avenues for learning about national politics, history, and the practicalities of political engagement.
Peer Groups: The company one keeps significantly influences political views, with playmates and friends shaping individual perspectives.
Political Parties: These entities stimulate political awareness and consciousness among citizens through manifestos, campaigns, and educational initiatives.
The Mass Media: Newspapers, radio, television, and magazines serve as crucial sources of information and entertainment, shaping public knowledge and opinions on political matters.
Religious Groups: Often intertwined with politics, religious organizations offer guidance to members on navigating political landscapes.
Pressure Groups: These entities wield considerable influence in political socialization by providing leadership training and educating members on their rights, duties, and responsibilities within the political sphere.
Together, these agents contribute to shaping the political identity and engagement of citizens, ensuring the continuity and vitality of the nation’s democratic processes.
Types And Characteristics Of Government
Unitary System of Government
The unitary form of government entails the consolidation of all governmental powers and functions within a singular central authority in a state or country, without any constitutional division of powers. Nations such as Britain, France, and Italy exemplify this system.
Key Features:
Centralization of all powers and functions under the central government.
Applicability in homogenous states and smaller countries.
Flexibility in constitutional arrangements.
Supremacy of the parliamentary body.
The central government’s authority extends to modifying the constitution.
Reasons for Adoption:
Efficient administration.
Best suited for smaller, homogenous states.
Facilitates effective control and accountability.
Promotes rapid and uniform development.
Enables centralized management of state resources.
Advantages:
Economically efficient.
Facilitates swift decision-making.
Fosters strong governmental authority and unity.
Eliminates conflicts of authority.
Simplifies constitutional amendments.
Effective in emergencies.
Disadvantages:
Prone to dictatorial tendencies.
Unsuitable for diverse or heterogeneous states.
Overburdens the central government.
Risks neglecting minority interests.
May lead to unemployment due to limited local initiatives.
Distance between government and grassroots communities.
Inadequate for large populations.
Federal System of Government
The federal system of government distributes governmental powers and functions between the central government and component states or units. This system, exemplified by nations like Nigeria, the USA, and India, ensures all levels of government derive their authority from the constitution.
Key Features:
Constitutional division of powers.
Powers derived from the constitution.
Suited for large, heterogeneous countries.
Encourages local initiatives.
Maintains constitutional supremacy and clear separation of powers.
Reasons for Adoption:
Enhanced proximity of government to citizens.
Best suited for large countries.
Prevents majority domination over minorities.
Addresses diverse cultural landscapes.
Response to regional desires for autonomy.
Facilitates resource pooling for economic strength.
Merits:
Increases proximity of governance to citizens.
Safeguards against dictatorship.
Lightens central government’s workload.
Stimulates employment through duplicated functions.
Encourages grassroots political participation.
Protects minority interests.
Demerits:
Delays in decision-making.
Secession threats from component units.
Rivalry and boundary disputes among units.
Minority apprehension of majority dominance.
Challenges in state creation.
High operational costs due to function duplication.
Uneven regional development pace.
Colonial Administration (Historical Background)
The Impact of the Berlin Conference
In the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of 1884-85, chaired by Ottovon Bismarck, West Africa became a stage for European colonial ambitions. This event catalyzed the establishment of colonial rule in the region, with Britain, France, Germany, and Portugal dividing up West Africa among themselves, except for Liberia. The era spanning from 1885 to the 1950s marked a period of colonial dominance in West Africa. However, rather than fostering local development, the resources of the region were often exploited for the benefit of European powers, hindering meaningful progress.
Factors Driving Colonialism
Colonialism was primarily fueled by economic motives, with trade and commerce taking centre stage. The industrial revolution in 17th century Europe spurred a quest for raw materials such as rubber, gold, ivory, cocoa, palm oil, and groundnuts. Additionally, European powers sought new markets for their manufactured goods, leading to the establishment of colonies in Nigeria and other West African territories. Slavery was also perpetuated to sustain certain colonies, while cultural and religious imposition was justified as a means to civilize the colonies and protect missionary interests.
Introduction of Indirect Rule
Indirect rule, pioneered by figures like Sir Lord Lugard, became a preferred administrative strategy for British colonies like Nigeria. This system involved governing through local chiefs or intermediaries, leveraging traditional laws and customs, while British officials oversaw the administration from a distance.
Characteristics of Indirect Rule
Indirect rule relied on existing traditional administrative structures and customs, aiming to develop and utilize them for effective governance. It was a cost-effective approach, involving the collection of taxes and the appointment of warrant officers/chiefs where traditional leadership was lacking.
Reasons for Indirect Rule
Factors such as a shortage of personnel, limited financial resources, and the success of similar systems in places like India and Uganda prompted the adoption of indirect rule. Language barriers and the desire to preserve local customs also played a role in its implementation.
Roles of Traditional Rulers
Traditional rulers played crucial roles in the indirect rule system, including tax collection, mediation between the local populace and colonial authorities, maintenance of law and order, participation in legislative councils, and control over native authorities.
Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria
Northern Nigeria saw significant success with indirect rule due to its well-established traditional administration, the authority of respected Emirs, the prevalence of Islam promoting obedience to authority, low levels of education facilitating acceptance of the system, and an efficient taxation system supporting administrative functions.
The System Of Indirect Rule In Western Nigeria
Northern Nigeria: Success Of Indirect Rule
Establishment and Exploitation:
After the establishment of the Nigerian state by 1900 and subsequent Amalgamation by 1914, classical Lugardian indirect rule mainly focused on economic exploitation.
Factors for Success:
Limited Powers of Obas:
In the Western region, the success of indirect rule partially stemmed from the limited powers of kings who were bound by the unwritten constitution of the kingdom. For instance, the case of pan Oyo Alaafin exemplifies this.
Impact of Education:
Educated elites questioned the rationale behind indirect rule, leveraging their education to challenge imperial imposition.
Religious Dynamics:
The majority of Yorubas being Christians, with a less conservative Christianity compared to Northern Islam, led to questions regarding the necessity of indirect rule.
Decentralized Administration:
Unlike the centralized system in the North, the Yoruba lacked a highly centralized administration, posing challenges to the implementation of indirect rule.
Taxation System:
The absence of a well-organized taxation system hindered the administration’s ability to raise funds, leading to riots in places like Iseyin, Okeho, and Abeokuta.
Neglect of Educated Elites:
Exclusion of educated elites from the administration resulted in open revolt against British hegemonic interests.
Eastern Nigeria: Failure Of Indirect Rule
Challenges and Failures:
Absence of Traditional Rulers:
The absence of chiefs rendered the system impracticable, as indirect rule relied on intermediary figures.
Appointment of Warrant Chiefs:
The imposition of pseudo-chiefs (warrant chiefs) by British officials for tax collection led to discontent, culminating in the Aba Women’s Riot of 1929.
Political Administration:
The decentralized nature of the Igbo political system clashed with the centralized approach of indirect rule, contributing to its failure.
Taxation Issues:
A lack of a well-organized taxation system undermined the financial sustainability of indirect rule, leading to its collapse.
Religious Dynamics:
Predominantly Christian Ibos questioned the imposition of indirect rule, given Christianity’s less conservative nature.
Alienation of Educated Elites:
Preference for uneducated individuals as warrant chiefs marginalized educated elites, sparking criticism.
Merits And Demerits Of Indirect Rule
Merits:
Less expensive system utilizing traditional rulers.
Preservation of existing traditions and cultures.
Training of traditional rulers in modern local government administration.
Demerits:
Alienation of educated elites.
Autocratic tendencies among traditional rulers.
Division between traditional rulers and educated elites, undermining unity.
Colonial Rule In West Africa: Impacts
Positive Impacts:
Introduction of modern government ideas.
Development of civil service and political parties.
Establishment of currency, banks, and exposure to Western education.
Negative Impacts:
Economic dependence and exploitation.
Polarization of English and French-speaking countries.
Cultural imperialism and the imposition of foreign cultures.
Facilitation of the slave trade and depletion of able-bodied individuals.
Lack of industrial development hindering overall progress.
Advantages Of Colonial Rule
African Education and Literacy
Traditional Education and Literacy
Africans had their educational methods, but literacy played a crucial role in broadening their understanding.
Establishment of Educational Institutions
The founding of educational institutions, including the University College, Ibadan in 1948, marked a significant shift in Euro-African relations.
Exposure to External Ideas
Despite being disadvantaged, exposure to foreign ideas during colonial rule left lasting impressions on many Africans.
Disadvantages of Colonial Rule
Condemnation of African Culture
Colonial rule led to a complete denigration of African customs, fostering a sense of inferiority among Africans.
Neglect of Rural Areas
Emphasis on urban centres for trade led to the neglect of rural areas, contributing to ongoing rural-urban migration challenges.
Distortion of Socio-economic Life
Colonial policies distorted the socio-economic fabric to favor colonial interests, disrupting traditional ways of life.
Premature Introduction of Western Economies
West African economies were prematurely introduced to the world under colonial administration, without adequate preparation.
Comparison: British Indirect Rule vs. French Assimilation
British Indirect Rule
Utilized African traditional chiefs
Traditional rulers were central to governance
Governed using traditional laws and customs
Relatively cost-effective administration
French Policy of Assimilation
Implemented direct colonial rule
Did not involve traditional chiefs
Traditional laws and customs were not prioritized
Expensive administrative approach
Functions of the British Colonial Governor
Ceremonial Duties
Conducted ceremonies like conferring honors and receiving dignitaries.
Reporting and Policy Formulation
Reported to the Crown through the Secretary of State.
Formulated social and economic policies for the colony.
Legislative Authority
Assented to bills passed by the legislative council.
Executive Powers
Exercised governmental authority on behalf of the British, including declaring states of emergency and granting pardons.
Nationalism
Defining Nationalism:
K.B.C. Onwubiko defines nationalism as “the patriotic sentiment or activity on the part of groups of Africans held together by the bonds of common language and common historic experience to assert their right to live under a government of their own making for the preservation of their political, economic and social interest.”
Factors Aiding the Rise of Nigerian Nationalism:
Impact of Western Education and Ideas:
Provided a common language for West African nationalism.
Influential figures: Kwame Nkrumah, Jimi Solanke, W.E.B. Dubois, Chief Obafemi Awolowo, Sir Herbert Macaulay, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, among others.
World Depression:
The First World War caused economic depression, fostering nationalistic sentiments.
Economic Exploitation:
Monopoly of trade by European firms led to exploitation, fueling nationalism.
Rising Cost of Living:
Increased prices made life unbearable, prompting nationalist movements.
Role of the Press:
Publications like West African Pilot, Lagos Weekly Record, and others exposed colonialism’s injustices.
Emergence of Political Parties:
Political parties like NNDP, CPP, and NCNC, led by prominent figures, spurred nationalist fervour.
Effects of Nationalism in Nigeria and West Africa:
Formation of political parties.
Provided political education to the masses.
Contributed to rapid economic growth.
Enhanced international recognition of West Africa.
Key Nationalist Leaders and Their Contributions:
Herbert Macaulay (1864–1946):
Founded Nigerian National Democratic Party in 1923.
Co-founded Daily News.
Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe (1904–1996):
Co-founder and editor of West Africa Pilot.
Co-founded National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon.
Sir Ahmadu Bello (1909–1966):
Co-founder of Northern People’s Congress.
Established schools to raise awareness.
Chief Obafemi Awolowo (1909–1987):
Co-founder of Trades Union Congress.
Premier of Western Region, introduced free education policy.
This comprehensive overview illustrates the multifaceted nature of Nigerian nationalism and the pivotal role played by key figures in its development.
Clifford Constitution Of 1922
The 1922 constitution, named after the then governor of Nigeria, Sir Hugh Clifford, introduced significant changes in Nigeria’s governance structure. It established both an executive council and a legislative council, with the governor wielding considerable authority. While it marked the first introduction of elected principles in Africa, it also had its share of advantages and disadvantages.
Key Features of the Clifford Constitution:
Creation of an executive council for the entire country.
Establishment of a legislative council with significant European presence.
Introduction of limited electoral rights based on income and residency.
Merit: Abolition of the non-elective Nigerian Council and encouragement of political parties and newspapers.
Demerits: Concentration of power in the governor, limited representation for Nigerians, and perpetuation of regional divisions.
Richards Constitution Highlights:
Implementation in 1947, featuring a central legislative council.
Granting the governor power to legislate for the whole country.
Introduction of regional assemblies and increased Nigerian representation.
Merits: Promotion of national unity, preparation for federalism, and recognition of traditional leadership.
Demerits: European dominance, lack of proper consultation, and continued voting restrictions.
Macpherson Constitution Features (1951):
Retention of bicameralism in the North, introduction in the West.
Establishment of regional executive councils and suffrage reforms.
Merits: Consultation with Nigerians, appointment of Nigerian ministers, and regional autonomy.
Demerits: Weak federal structure, regional-minded ministers, and breakdown due to political motions and riots.
Each constitution brought its own set of advancements and challenges, shaping Nigeria’s political landscape and governance evolution.
Lyttleton Constitution Of 1954
Key Features of the Lyttleton Constitution:
Federal Structure: Nigeria transitioned into a truly federal state with a clear division of powers between central and regional governments.
Executive Appointments: The governor appointed the speaker of the House of Assembly, who could be chosen from members or non-members of the house.
Governor Titles: The governor was referred to as governor-general, while lieutenant governors became designated governors.
Judicial and Public Service: Both judiciary and public service were regionalized, each having its own federal and regional commissions.
Premiership: The provision for a regional leader of government business (premier) was established.
Merits of the Lyttleton Constitution:
Formalized Federalism: The constitution officially established the federal structure.
Direct Elections: Direct elections were introduced for federal and regional legislatures.
Regional Leadership: Nigerians held positions of premiers and speakers in the regions.
Ministerial Responsibilities: Ministers were made heads of departments with full accountability.
Demerits of the Lyttleton Constitution:
Autocratic Powers: Governor-general and regional governors retained some autocratic powers.
Lack of Nigerian Prime Minister: The constitution failed to replace the British governor-general with a Nigerian prime minister.
No Common Electoral System: There was no unified electoral system for the entire country.
Revenue Formula: The revenue formula favoured derivation over need and national interest.
Regionalism Encouragement: The regional structure fostered regionalism, ethnicity, and national disunity.
1958 Constitutional Conference:
The final pre-independence constitutional conference convened in London from September 29 to October 27, 1958. Topics included the creation of additional regions or states to address fears of ethnic dominance and discussions on granting independence to Nigeria.
The Independence Constitution Of 1960
Features of the Constitution:
Retained Federalism: Modeled after the Lyttleton Constitution of 1954, the Constitution upheld federalism.
Ceremonial Head of State: Designated the Governor-General as the symbolic head of state, representing the Queen of England.
Parliamentary Democracy: Established a parliamentary democratic system of governance in Nigeria.
Bicameral Legislatures: Implemented bicameral legislatures at both federal and regional/state levels.
Judicial Appointments: Judicial appointments, including Supreme Court and high court judges, were to be advised by a Judicial Service Commission comprised of judges.
Premier’s Removal: Granted the governor the authority to remove the premier if they lost the confidence of the house.
Merits of the Independence Constitution:
Turning Point for Self-Determination: Signaled a significant milestone in Nigeria’s quest for self-determination and liberation from colonialism.
International Diplomacy: Initiated a new diplomatic era with Nigeria joining international organizations like the UN and Commonwealth.
Employment Opportunities: Created employment opportunities in the civil service previously occupied by British nationals.
Accountability Measures: Mandated the federal Minister of Finance to submit the Director of Audit’s report to parliament.
Bicameral Legislature Establishment: Established bicameral federal and regional legislatures.
Weaknesses of the Independence Constitution:
Retention of British Monarchy: Maintained the British Queen as the ceremonial head of state.
Supreme Court Hierarchy: The Supreme Court was not the final court of appeal; the British Privy Council retained that role.
Appointment of Senate Members: Senators were appointed by regional governments rather than elected.
Lack of Clarity on Regional Creation: Did not adequately address the issue of creating more regions in Nigeria.
Foreign Influence: Considered a disadvantage as it was not entirely domestically crafted.
Features of the Republican Constitution of 1963:
Establishment of Republican Government: Instituted a republican form of government in Nigeria.
End of British Monarchy: Removed the Queen of England as the head of state.
Ceremonial Presidency: The president held a ceremonial role rather than executive powers.
Emergency Powers: Granted some emergency powers to the federal government.
Legislature Expansion: Increased the number of seats in both the Senate and the House of Representatives.
Merits of the First Republican Constitution:
Elected President: Introduced an elected president, replacing the British monarch.
Domestically Crafted: Developed as a fully homemade constitution.
Supreme Court Authority: Made the Supreme Court the final court of appeal.
Citizens’ Rights Protection: Ensured the full guarantee and entrenchment of citizens’ rights.
Inclusive Decision-Making: Involved Nigerians fully in the country’s decision-making process.
Demerits of the First Republican Constitution:
Minority-Controlled Election: The president was elected by the National Assembly, which represented the minority of electorates.
Fusion of Government Branches: Legislative and executive arms were fused.
Parliamentary Supremacy: Parliamentary supremacy was favored over constitutional supremacy.
Lack of Direct Accountability: Prime Minister was accountable to parliament, not directly to the people.
Permitted Carpet-Crossing: Allowed elected politicians to switch party allegiance for personal gain.
Features Of The 1989 Constitution
Constitutional Features and Evaluations:
Retained Presidential System: The constitution maintained the presidential system of governance, akin to the 1979 framework.
Entrenched Two-Party System: The constitution solidified a two-party system, aiming to streamline electoral choices and reduce confusion compared to a multi-party setup.
Recall Provision for Legislators: Empowered citizens with the ability to recall legislators who lost public confidence, enhancing accountability.
Non-State Status for Abuja: Designated Abuja, the federal capital territory, as distinct from a state within the constitutional framework.
Protection of Rights and Independent Judiciary: Ensured provisions for fundamental human rights and an independent judiciary for Nigerian citizens.
Merits of the 1989 Constitution
Streamlined Electoral Choice: The two-party system focused voter options, minimizing confusion.
Qualification Standards for Candidates: Set age and education requirements aimed at excluding inexperienced and uneducated individuals from governance.
Local Government Empowerment: Increased attention to local and rural development through enhanced local government prominence.
Demerits of the 1989 Constitution
Part-Time Legislature: Legislators’ part-time status and allowances led to a focus on private businesses over legislative duties.
Restriction on Political Choice: Limited political options for both politicians and voters, constraining democratic expression.
Features of the 1999 Constitution
Continuation of Prior Constitutions: Maintained elements from both the 1979 and 1989 constitutions.
Bicameral Legislature: Established a two-chamber national legislature and a unicameral legislature for each state.
Education Requirement for Candidates: Mandated a secondary school certificate as the minimum educational qualification for national and state office seekers.
Local Government Councils: Provided for 774 local government councils.
Revenue Allocation Formula: Outlined a formula for distributing revenue.
Advantages of the 1999 Constitution
Introduction of Fourth Republic and Presidential System: Initiated the fourth republic and reinstated the presidential system.
Educational and Age Qualifications: Reduced governance inefficiencies by requiring minimum education and age criteria for officeholders.
Grassroots Political Development: Facilitated political growth at the grassroots level.
Smooth Transition from Military Rule: Enabled a seamless transition from military to civilian rule.
Demerits of the 1999 Constitution
Imposed by the Military: The military enforced the constitution on the populace.
Rigidity and Amendment Difficulty: Notably inflexible and challenging to amend.
Aligned with Abacha’s Agenda: Allegedly tailored to serve the interests of Abacha.
Centralization of Judiciary: Contrary to federalism demands, centralized judiciary power.
Federal Government Overreach: Granted excessive authority to the federal government.
Features Of Nigerian Federalism
Exploring the Dynamics of Nigerian Federalism:
Federal Arrangement: Nigeria functions as a federal republic, distributing authority between the central administration and its 36 constituent states. The federal government handles national affairs like defense and foreign relations, while states retain control over certain areas within their borders.
Codified Constitution: Nigeria possesses a written constitution delineating the roles and powers of the federal government, states, and other political entities. This foundational document serves as the ultimate legal authority, guiding the allocation of powers between federal and state entities.
Power Allocation: Nigerian federalism operates through the allocation of powers between the central government and states. The constitution specifies exclusive federal powers, concurrent powers shared by both levels, and residual powers left to the states, aiming to strike a balance between centralization and decentralization.
Dual Legislative Chambers: Nigeria’s legislature comprises two chambers – the Senate (upper house) and the House of Representatives (lower house). This setup ensures representation from both federal and state levels, enabling diverse perspectives and interests to be heard.
Fiscal Distribution: Fiscal federalism is pivotal in Nigeria, with the federal government collecting revenue, particularly from oil and gas, and redistributing it among states. Periodic reviews of the revenue-sharing formula aim to ensure equity and address varying state needs.
State Sovereignty: Nigerian federalism upholds the autonomy and self-governance of its constituent states, each with its government led by a governor. States wield authority over sectors like education, healthcare, and infrastructure within their boundaries.
Judicial Independence: An independent judiciary acts as a watchdog over federal and state powers, ensuring adherence to the constitution and resolving disputes. This judiciary plays a crucial role in interpreting and enforcing laws.
Unitary State Legislature: While the federal level adopts a bicameral system, most states in Nigeria operate with a unicameral legislature, typically known as the House of Assembly. This structure facilitates local decision-making and representation.
State Formation: Nigerian federalism allows for the creation and merging of states, accommodating regional aspirations and fostering inclusivity among diverse ethnic groups.
Intergovernmental Cooperation: Collaboration between federal and state entities is encouraged through mechanisms like the National Economic Council, promoting policy discussions and coordinated development efforts.
It’s worth noting that Nigerian federalism has evolved over time, undergoing debates and revisions that shape its implementation and effectiveness.
Problems Of Nigerian Federalism
Resource Control Imbalance
The central government holds sway over most of Nigeria’s resources, particularly oil and gas revenues, leaving states with limited control over their own resources.
This leads to unequal resource allocation and a feeling of economic and political marginalization among some states.
Debate on Revenue Allocation
The current revenue allocation formula, known as “federal allocation,” is contested for its fairness and transparency.
Some states argue it doesn’t accurately reflect their contributions to national revenue.
Regionalism and Ethnic Divisions
Nigeria’s diverse ethnic makeup sometimes fuels regional and ethnic tensions.
Some regions feel underrepresented or unprotected within the federal system, sparking occasional conflicts and calls for restructuring.
Centralized Power Critique
Critics argue power is overly centralized at the federal level, limiting state autonomy.
This concentration of power affects key areas like security and fiscal policy, hindering state-level governance and development.
State Capacity Challenges
Many states lack infrastructure, skilled workforce, and financial resources, leading to development disparities.
Weak state capacity hampers effective governance and service delivery.
Corruption and Mismanagement Impact
Corruption and mismanagement persist at both federal and state levels, undermining development efforts.
These practices erode the effectiveness of federalism and impede equitable development.
Oil Dependency Risks
Nigeria’s heavy reliance on oil exports creates economic vulnerabilities and imbalances.
Fluctuating oil prices globally can significantly impact revenue and economic stability, hindering diversification efforts.
Development Of Political Parties
Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP)
Party Objectives
Municipal Autonomy for Lagos
Coordination of Legislative Council Representation
Expansion of Educational Opportunities
Nationwide Party Establishment
Collaboration with the National Congress of British West Africa
Leadership and Achievements
Herbert Macaulay initiated and led the NNDP until his demise in 1946. Egerton Shyngle served as the inaugural president, with T.H. Jackson as the first honorary secretary, and J.C. Zizer as the first solicitor. The party secured the three Lagos seats in the legislative council during the elections of 1923, 1928, and 1933.
Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM)
Formation and Goals
Initially known as the Lagos Youth Movement, the NYM was spearheaded by Dr. J.C. Vaughan, H.O. Davies, Ernest Ikoli, and Samuel Akinsanya. Its objectives included complete independence within the British Empire, ethnic unity, public enlightenment, and universal suffrage.
Achievements
In 1938, the NYM triumphed in the Lagos Town Council elections and secured all three elective seats designated to Lagos in the legislative council, superseding the NNDP as the primary political force in Lagos. The movement also fostered nationalism, established a daily newspaper, and bolstered Nigerian unity and consciousness through its widespread membership and organization.
THE Action Group (AG)
Foundation and Objective
Formed in March 1951 by members of Egbe Omo Oduduwa, the AG aimed to advance mass literacy, win political power in the Western Region, and collaborate with ethnic and nationalist groups towards rapid self-governance for Nigeria.
Accomplishments
The AG played a pivotal role in the struggle for independence, notably through Anthony Enahoro’s motion for self-government by 1956. It secured electoral victories in the Western region, introduced free primary education in Nigeria in 1955, emerged as the opposition party in the Eastern region and at the federal level, and earned recognition as the best-managed political entity in Nigeria from 1951 to 1962.
Northern Peoples Congress (NPC)
Origins and Achievements
Evolving from the cultural organization Jamiyaa Jama’ar Arewa, the NPC saw Sir Ahmadu Bello rise as its leader and subsequently become the Premier of Northern Nigeria in 1954. The party’s accomplishments included governing the federal administration during the First Republic, producing Nigeria’s first Prime Minister, maintaining control over the Northern region until January 1966, and representing the Northern region in constitutional conferences leading to independence.