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SS 1 Catering Craft Practices

Food Commodities: Meat, Poultry, Game, & Types Of Meat

Food commodities are essential ingredients combined to create complete meals, encompassing the various sources of essential nutrients. These commodities comprise:

1. Meat
2. Poultry
3. Game
4. Fish
5. Vegetables
6. Fruits
7. Eggs
8. Milk and milk products (cheese and yogurt)
9. Food additives (coloring and flavoring)

Meat:

Meat is the muscle or flesh obtained from animals after slaughtering. It consists of muscle fibers connected by connective tissues and linked to bones by tendons. Fat is embedded in the connective tissues between the fibers.

Food Value of Meat:

1. Protein: A primary nutrient, providing all essential amino acids.
2. Mineral Elements: Rich in sulfur, calcium, phosphorus, and iron.
3. Vitamins: Contains B-complex vitamins (e.g., riboflavin, thiamine, nicotinic acid). Fatty meat like pork is high in vitamin A and D.
4. Fat: Provides fat from connective tissues.
5. Water: Contains varying percentages of water.

Types of Meat:

Different types of animals yield different types of meat, such as beef, veal, mutton, lamb, pork, ham, bacon, game, lard, suet, and poultry.

Cuts of Meat:

Meat from different parts of the animal is categorized into various cuts, including head, neck, chuck, rib-roast, brisket, ox-tongue, ox-tail, leg beef, etc.

Appearance of Meat:

1. White Meat: Tender with less fat and connective tissues (e.g., veal, rabbit, chicken).
2. Red Meat: Contains more fat and connective tissues (e.g., beef, pork, lamb).

Factors to Be Considered When Purchasing Meat:

Consider color, odor, tenderness, lean meat characteristics, moisture, and the appearance of bones in young animals.

Factors Affecting Meat Tenderness:

Depends on the age and activities of the animals. Tough meat can be tenderized through mechanical methods, enzymatic action, boiling with seasonings, hanging, or cooking in a pressure cooker.

Methods of Cooking Meat:

Boiling, frying, stewing, roasting, grilling.

Effects of Heat on Meat:

Cooking makes meat digestible, enhances flavor and appearance, removes indigestible fat, causes shrinkage.

Preservation of Meat:

Salting, chilling, freezing, canning, smoking, drying.

Poultry:

Meat derived from domesticated birds like chicken, duck, turkey, and guinea fowl. Classified into white and dark meat.

Types of Chicken:

Spring chicken, broiler chicken, cockerels and old layers, old hen.

Food Values of Poultry:

Rich in proteins, low in fat, contains mineral salts and vitamins.

Factors to Consider When Purchasing Poultry:

Consider the legs, weight, eyes, breast, comb and wattles, absence of grains in the crop, age, liveliness, and strength.

Preparation and Storage of Poultry:

After killing, allow rigor mortis to pass before preparation. Raw poultry can be treated with lime or lemon to remove strong flavors. Poultry can be stored live or dressed and frozen.

Game:

Refers to certain wild birds and animals hunted for food, classified by feathers, fur, and non-furred.

Food Value:

Less fatty than poultry or meat, easily digestible, useful for building and repairing body tissues and providing energy.

Storage:

Hanging is essential for all game to drain blood and soften the flesh.

Food Commodities: Egg, Uses Of Eggs, Method Of Cooking Eggs & Fish

Eggs

The term “egg” applies not only to those laid by hens but also includes the edible eggs of other birds such as turkeys, geese, ducks, guinea fowl, and quails.

Eggs typically have a spherical structure with one end pointed more than the other, which is blunt. The egg is enclosed by a fairly robust protective covering called the shell, whose color depends on the type of bird that laid it. The yolk also varies, ranging from yellowish to creamy white.

Food Value Of Eggs

1. Protein: Eggs are a rich source of high-value protein, making them a suitable replacement for meat, poultry, and fish in the diet.
2. Minerals and Vitamins: Eggs contain vitamins A, B-complex, and D, as well as mineral salts such as iron, sulfur, phosphorus, and calcium.
3. Fat: The yolk contains a considerable amount of fat.
4. Water: The yolk contains 51% water, while the egg white contains 87% water, indicating a significant water content in eggs. However, eggs do not contain carbohydrates or starch.

Grading Of Hens’ Eggs

1. Small: 53g or under
2. Medium: 53 – 63g
3. Large: 63 – 73g
4. Very large: 73g

Uses Of Eggs

1. Eggs are utilized to enhance the nutritional value and flavor of various foods, such as pancakes and doughnuts.
2. They serve as a binding agent in dishes like yam balls and fish cakes.
3. Eggs are used to coat foods before frying, such as fish and yam balls.
4. They act as a thickening agent in egg custards and sauces.
5. Eggs function as a raising agent in dishes like sponge cake and pancakes.
6. They are used for glazing pastries, bread, and biscuits before baking.
7. Eggs are valuable in the diet, especially for children, invalids, and convalescents.

Factors To Consider When Choosing Eggs

1. The shell of fresh eggs should be slightly rough.
2. When broken, the yolk should be intact and surrounded by the egg white.
3. Held towards a light source, the egg should be clear and bright, not opaque.
4. There should be no offensive odor when the egg is broken.
5. Shaking the egg should produce no sound.
6. When immersed in salted water, the egg should sink and not float.
7. The shell should be intact and not broken.

Method Of Cooking Eggs

1. Boiling
2. Poaching
3. Frying

Various egg dishes include omelettes, Scotch eggs, scrambled eggs, fried eggs, egg custard, and egg sauce.

Fish

Fish refers to sea creatures living in both fresh and saltwater. It is more easily digestible than meat.

Classification Of Fish

Fish is categorized into two groups:

Finfish

1. a) White/Lean Fish: Examples include cod, tilapia, halibut, skate, sole, and brill.
2. b) Oily/Fat Fish: Examples include mackerel, salmon, herrings, tuna, kingfish, and sardines.

Shellfish

1. a) Mollusks: Examples include clams, periwinkle, scallops, and oysters.
2. b) Crustaceans: Examples include crabs, crayfish, prawns, shrimps, and lobsters.

Food Value Of Fish

1. Protein: Fish contains a substantial amount of protein, with dried fish having a higher food value than fresh fish.
2. Fat: Oily fish has more fat than white fish.
3. Vitamins: Oily fish is rich in vitamins A and D.
4. Mineral salts: Fish contains calcium (in bones) and iodine (in sea fish).
5. Water: All fish contain water, with white fish having more water than oily fish.

Fish Cuts

1. Whole or Round fish: Unprocessed, with nothing removed.
2. Drawn fish: Entrails (intestines and gills) removed.
3. Dressed fish: Head, fin, tail, and scales removed.
4. Steaks: Cross-section slices from a large dressed fish.
5. Fillets: Sides of the fish cut lengthwise away from the backbone, practically boneless.

Factors To Consider When Buying Fish

1. Select fish with bright eyes.
2. Firm and stiff flesh, not flabby.
3. No unpleasant odor.
4. Bright and red gills.
5. Bright, shiny, and plentiful scales.
6. Solidly frozen for frozen fish, with no discoloration or offensive odor.

Methods Of Cooking Fish

1. Frying
2. Boiling
3. Stewing
4. Grilling and roasting
5. Poaching

Food Commodities: Milk, Vegetables and Fruits

Milk, a creamy and nutritious liquid produced by female mammals to nourish their young, is predominantly sourced from cows. It is considered nature’s perfect food for children due to its comprehensive nutrient content, although it may not suffice for adults. Additionally, milk is valued in the diets of invalids and convalescents for its easy digestibility and high nutritional value.

Food Value of Milk:

3. a) Protein: Milk contains 3.5% protein, primarily casein, with additional albumen and globulin.
4. b) Carbohydrate: Lactose, a disaccharide, serves as the carbohydrate component.
5. c) Fat: Milk features fat in the form of a fine emulsion, easily digestible.
6. d) Minerals: Small quantities of mineral salts like calcium, phosphorus, and iron are present.
7. e) Vitamins: Milk contains fat-soluble vitamins (A&D) and B-complex vitamins (B1, B2, B12).
8. f) Water: Approximately 87.2% of milk comprises water.

Types of Milk:

1. Fresh Whole Milk: Directly obtained from cows with no removal of components.
2. Skimmed Milk: Fat content is removed, leaving protein, carbohydrate, vitamins, and minerals.
3. Semi-Skimmed Milk: Homogenized and pasteurized, with a fat content between 1.5% and 1.8%.
4. Dried or Powdered Milk: Over 90% of water is removed, milled to powder form.
5. Evaporated Milk: 60% of water content is removed.
6. Condensed Milk: Sweetened evaporated milk, sweeter and thicker.
7. Soya Milk: Obtained from soya beans, an alternative for vegans and those intolerant to cow milk.
8. Rice Milk: Obtained from white rice, an alternative for vegans and lactose-intolerant individuals.
9. Coconut Milk: High in saturated fats, used as a drink or ingredient in sauces.

Digestibility of Milk:

The digestion of milk depends on clot size in the stomach. Factors influencing clot density include calcium and casein content, acidity of gastric juice, and methods to enhance digestibility like dilution, aeration, consumption with solid foods, and boiling.

Storage of Milk:

Milk, a perishable product, should be stored in its delivery container in the refrigerator, covered to avoid absorbing odors. Fresh milk and cream should be purchased daily. Tinned milk is stored in a cool, dry, ventilated room, while dried milk is stored in airtight tins in a dry store.

Preservation of Milk/Heat Treatment:

Common preservation methods include evaporation, dehydration, pasteurization, sterilization, U.H.T (ultra-high-temperature), and homogenization.

Uses of Milk:

Milk is used in soups, sauces, puddings, cakes, sweet dishes, cooking fish and vegetables, and as hot and cold drinks.

Milk/Dairy Products:

Cheese:

Made from milk, it requires approximately 5 liters to produce ½ kg. Types include hard, semi-hard, soft/cream, blue-vein, and cheese spread.

Yoghurt:

Produced by bacterial fermentation of milk, yoghurt is versatile and can be consumed as a refreshing meal or added to dishes to enhance flavor.

Vegetables:

Plants or plant parts cultivated for food, vegetables are classified into various types based on their parts. They offer second-class protein, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, and water.

Storage of Vegetables:

Vegetables should be stored in a cool, dry, ventilated room, with regular checks for freshness. Different types of vegetables have specific storage requirements.

Preservation of Vegetables:

Methods include canning, dehydration/drying, pickling, salting, and freezing.

Fruits:

Fruits are classified as fresh or dried, each with a unique set of types and nutritive values. Fresh fruits can be served whole, juiced, diluted, in salads, or used for preserves.

Nutritive Value of Fruits:

Fruits contain vitamins (especially vitamin C), carbohydrates, minerals, and water.

Methods of Preservation of Fruits:

Preservation methods include drying, canning, bottling, quick freezing, cold storage, and gas storage.

Points to Consider When Purchasing Fruits:

Freshness, absence of insect infestation, ripeness, firmness, and adherence to seasonal availability are crucial considerations.

In summary, milk and dairy products, vegetables, and fruits contribute significantly to a balanced and nutritious diet, with various preservation methods ensuring their availability and quality.

Food Commodities: Cereal, Pulses, Herbs & Spices

Cereals And Grains

Cereals, a collective term for plants in the grass family, produce seeds known as grains. Common cereals include rice, corn, millet, barley, oats, and wheat. They serve as staple foods worldwide.

Nutritive Value Of Cereals

1. Carbohydrates: Cereals provide energy through starch.
2. Protein: Whole cereal grains offer a significant amount of second-class protein.
3. Fat: Cereals have low fat content (1-3%), mainly in the germ.
4. Vitamins and Minerals: Minimal amounts in aleurone, germ, and scutellum layers; yellow maize is rich in carotene (Vit. A).

Pulses And Legumes

Legumes are edible seeds of leguminous plants. They are categorized as:

1. PULSES: Dried seeds of cultivated legumes (e.g., beans, peas, lentils).
2. OIL SEEDS: Legumes grown for oil content (e.g., groundnuts, soybeans).

Nutritive Value Of Legumes

1. Protein: Legumes are a good protein source, with soya beans providing complete protein.
2. Carbohydrates: Legumes contain small quantities of carbohydrates.
3. Vitamins and Minerals: Rich in B-complex vitamins, vitamin C, iron, and calcium.
4. Fats and Oil: Oil seeds contain a substantial amount of oil.

Nuts

Nuts are the reproductive kernel of plants or trees, belonging to the legume family. They are perishable and rich in protein, fat, and minerals.

Food Value Of Nuts

Nuts are highly nutritious, serving as essential sources of protein, fat, and minerals. They are vital for vegetarians. Nuts can be challenging to digest.

Storage

1. Nuts should be stored in a dry, well-ventilated area.
2. Shelled nuts, whether ground, nibbled, flaked, or whole, should be kept in an airtight container.
3. No mildew signs should be present before storage.

Quality and Purchasing Points

1. Nuts should be of good size and feel heavy for their size.
2. No signs of mildew should be observed.

Uses

Nuts serve various purposes, such as dessert, as main ingredients in vegetarian dishes, and for decorating and flavouring. Examples include Brazil nuts, chestnuts, coconut, walnuts, peanuts, and cashews.

Herbs And Spices

Herbs come from plant leaves, while spices are derived from roots, seeds, buds, or bark. They contain volatile essential oils with characteristic flavour and aroma.

Classification Of Herbs And Spices

Natural:

1. African lemon tea
2. Bitter leaf
3. Tea bush
4. African nutmeg
5. African black pepper
6. Locust beans
7. Ginger and garlic
8. Mustard seeds
9. Basil
10. Bay leaves
11. Parsley
12. Rosemary
13. Moringa leaves
14. Lovage

Artificial:

1. Thyme
2. Nutmeg
3. Curry
4. Cinnamon, etc.

Flavourings And Colourings

Food additives enhance flavour, aroma, and colour. Herbs and spices can serve as natural or artificial flavourings and colourings.

Flavourings

Natural:

1. Ginger
2. Cinnamon
3. Nutmeg
4. Pepper
5. Rosemary
6. Sesame
7. Onions
8. Dried okra
9. Orange peel
10. Dry crayfish
11. Iru (fermented locust beans)
12. Ogiri (fermented melon), etc.

Artificial:

1. Curry powder
2. Thyme
3. Vinegar
4. Monosodium glutamate (e.g., maggi, knorr, etc.)

Colourings

Natural:

1. Carotene
2. Chlorophyll
3. Carotenoids
4. Turmeric
5. Jellies
6. Anthocyanin

Artificial:

(No examples provided)

Flour Cookery: Types of flour, Raising Agents & Flour mixtures

Flour

Flour is the result of grinding whole wheat (or any other cereal) into a powder through the milling process.

Milling involves crushing and grinding grains into powder using a machine. Cereal flours can be categorized into low extraction rate or high extraction rate. Wheat is the most commonly used cereal for flour.

Low Extraction rate flours are produced by removing all outer layers of cereals, leaving only the central endosperm. This results in very white flour with low nutritive content.

High Extraction rate flours are produced from partially milled cereals that retain some outer layers. They are not as white as low extraction flours but have better nutritive value.

Composition Of Flour

Starch is the primary component of any flour. Gluten, the elastic and impermeable protein in flour, is crucial for bread making. Flour contains up to 16% water, and although sugar quantity is small, it plays a significant role in fermentation.

Types Of Flour

1. Whole wheat flour: Contains all natural wheat constituents in unaltered proportions. Rich and natural but not suitable for long-term storage.

2. Instant blending flour (Agglomerated flour): Uniform-sized particles that don’t need sifting, freely flowing and dispersing in cold water.

3. All-purpose flour: Average protein content, suitable for various cooking purposes.

4. Soft wheat flour: Very soft, smooth, and granule-free. Low in protein, used for cakes, cookies, pastries, and crackers.

5. Hard wheat flour: High protein content, heavier texture, suitable for bread making.

6. Cake flour: Made from soft wheat, low protein, retains shape when pressed lightly.

7. Self-raising flour: Contains salt, baking powder, and other ingredients for self-rising, good for plain cakes and scones.

8. Pastry flour: Soft and smooth, used for making pastries, cookies, etc.

9. Composite flour: A mixture of two or more types of flour in specific ratios.

Raising Agents

Raising agents make flour mixtures rise and double in size. Commonly used raising agents include air, baking powder, yeast, palm wine, cream of tartar, bicarbonate of soda, and steam.

Flour Mixtures

Products obtained from flour and other ingredients, grouped based on ingredients and raising agents:

1. a) Pastry: Mixture of flour, fat, salt, and liquid, used for meat pie, sausage rolls, cream puff, etc., with baking powder as the raising agent.
2. b) Dough: Mixture with little butter and yeast as the raising agent, used for bread dough, doughnuts, dinner rolls, etc.
3. c) Batter: Flour mixture with enough liquid, salt, egg, and a pouring consistency, using air as the raising agent. Used for pancakes, Swiss rolls, spring rolls, etc., and coating foods for frying.
4. d) Cakes: Rich flour mixtures with equal parts butter and sugar, eggs added for richness, and baking powder as the raising agent. Used for various cakes, buns, chin-chin, etc.

Cooking of Foods

Food Cooking

The process of cooking involves applying heat to foods, and preparing them for consumption by making them palatable, digestible, attractive, and safe. Essentially, cooking is the transfer of energy from a heat source to food, causing physical and chemical changes.

Cooking Principles – Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is the movement of heat from one source to another. Various cooking methods rely on these principles:

1. Conduction: Heat moves through solid materials/objects. Metals like copper, aluminum, and iron conduct heat quickly, while non-metals like wood and plastics transfer heat more slowly. Cooking utensils, typically made of good conductors like aluminum, facilitate rapid heat conduction.
2. Convection: Heat particles move through liquid or gas, creating a current that distributes heat. Cooking methods involving liquids often utilize this principle.
3. Radiation: Heat transfers from a hotter to a cooler place without heating the intervening medium. Direct rays falling on objects facilitate heat transfer, and no object is required for this process.

Purposes of Cooking Food

1. Softening food: Cooking breaks down the fibrous structure of many foods, making them softer and easier to chew and digest. This is particularly important for tough meats, root vegetables, and grains.
2. Facilitating digestion: Cooking begins the process of breaking down complex molecules in food, such as proteins and starches, into simpler forms that are more easily absorbed by the body during digestion. This can help reduce the strain on the digestive system.
3. Enhancing attractiveness: Cooking transforms raw ingredients into visually appealing dishes through techniques such as browning, caramelization, and garnishing. The colors, textures, and presentation of cooked food can make it more enticing and appetizing to eat.
4. Developing new flavors: Cooking unlocks the natural flavors of ingredients and can create entirely new taste profiles through processes like Maillard browning, caramelization, and reduction. The combination of heat, ingredients, and cooking methods can result in complex and delicious flavor combinations.
5. Stimulating appetite: The aromas, sights, and sounds of cooking can stimulate the senses and trigger hunger cues, making food more enticing and enjoyable to eat. The anticipation of a well-cooked meal can enhance the overall dining experience.
6. Improving palatability: Cooking can enhance the texture, flavor, and overall palatability of food, making it more enjoyable to eat. Proper cooking techniques can balance flavors, textures, and temperatures to create harmonious and satisfying dishes.
7. Destroying germs in food: Cooking kills harmful bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens that may be present in raw food, reducing the risk of foodborne illnesses. Proper cooking temperatures and techniques are essential for ensuring food safety.
8. Preserving food for longer shelf life: Cooking can be used as a method of food preservation by killing or deactivating enzymes and microorganisms that cause food spoilage. Canning, pasteurization, and other cooking methods can extend the shelf life of perishable foods, allowing them to be stored safely for longer periods.

Factors In Choosing Cooking Method

1. Types of Food and Desired Product:
   (a) Consider the composition and texture of the ingredients. Some foods might benefit from slow cooking to tenderize, while others require high heat for caramelization.
   (b) Reflect on the desired outcome: whether it’s maintaining the food’s natural flavors and nutrients through steaming or achieving a crispy texture through frying.
   (c) Think about the compatibility of different cooking methods with specific ingredients. For instance, delicate fish may be best suited for gentle poaching, while hearty vegetables could excel on the grill.
2. The Intended Consumers of the Food:
   (a) Take into account dietary restrictions or preferences such as vegan, gluten-free, or low-fat diets.
   (b) Consider cultural or religious considerations that might dictate certain cooking methods or ingredient choices.
   (c) Adapt the cooking method to suit the preferences of the audience. For example, children might enjoy finger foods or dishes with mild flavors, while adults might appreciate more complex and adventurous tastes.
3. Available Cooking Equipment and Facilities:
   (a) Assess the range of appliances and tools at your disposal, including stovetops, ovens, grills, microwaves, and specialized equipment like sous vide machines.
   (b) Consider the space and ventilation available in your kitchen. Certain cooking methods, such as deep frying, require ample room and proper ventilation to avoid safety hazards and unwanted odors.
   (c) Evaluate the energy efficiency of different cooking methods, taking into account factors like electricity or gas consumption and environmental impact.
4. Skill Level of the Cook:
   (a) Match the complexity of the cooking method to the proficiency of the cook. Beginners might feel more comfortable with simple techniques like boiling or baking, while experienced chefs can experiment with advanced methods like sous vide or molecular gastronomy.
   (b) Factor in time constraints and preparation requirements. Some methods, such as braising or slow roasting, require minimal hands-on attention, making them suitable for busy schedules, while others demand precise timing and technique.
   (c) Invest in education and practice to improve cooking skills over time. Online tutorials, cooking classes, and recipe books can provide valuable guidance and inspiration for mastering new techniques and expanding culinary repertoire.
5. Types of Food and Desired Product:
   (a) Take into account the nutritional content of the food and how different cooking methods may affect it. For example, steaming vegetables retains more vitamins and minerals compared to boiling.
   (b) Consider the cultural context of the dish and how traditional cooking methods might enhance its authenticity and flavor profile. For instance, certain cuisines emphasize the use of clay ovens or open flames for specific dishes.
   (c) Evaluate the sensory aspects of the desired product, such as color, aroma, and texture. Different cooking methods can produce variations in these qualities, influencing the overall appeal of the dish.
6. The Intended Consumers of the Food:
   (a) Anticipate the dietary preferences and restrictions of your audience, including allergies, intolerances, and ethical considerations such as sustainability and animal welfare.
   (b) Tailor the presentation of the food to appeal to the target demographic. For example, incorporating visually appealing garnishes or serving portions in individual sizes for a professional setting.
   (c) Consider the cultural background and culinary expectations of the consumers. Offering familiar flavors or regional specialties can create a sense of comfort and connection with the food.
7. Available Cooking Equipment and Facilities:
   (a) Explore alternative cooking methods that can be achieved with basic kitchen tools in the absence of specialized equipment. For example, using a heavy-bottomed pan as a makeshift grill for indoor cooking.
   (b) Optimize the use of multi-functional appliances to maximize cooking versatility and efficiency. Instant pots, for instance, can serve multiple purposes such as pressure cooking, slow cooking, and sautéing.
   (c) Incorporate innovative cooking techniques that leverage modern technology, such as induction cooktops, immersion circulators, and air fryers, to achieve precise results and unique flavor profiles.
8. Skill Level of the Cook:
   (a) Gradually progress from basic techniques to more advanced methods to build confidence and competence in the kitchen. Starting with simple recipes and gradually incorporating new skills can foster a sense of accomplishment and motivation.
   (b) Seek feedback from peers, mentors, or online communities to identify areas for improvement and refine culinary techniques. Constructive criticism and shared experiences can offer valuable insights and encouragement.
   (c) Experiment with flavor combinations, ingredient pairings, and cooking styles to develop a personal cooking style and repertoire. Embrace creativity and curiosity in the kitchen to continually challenge and expand your culinary skills.

Motivations For Eating Out

1. Convenience at work or near home.
2. Seeking variety for a more interesting life.
3. Avoid the hassle of preparing food at home.
4. Captive markets, such as hospitals, prisons, and schools.
5. Impulsive, spur-of-the-moment decisions.

Cooking Methods Classification

1. Moist-heat methods – involving cooking with liquid:
2. 1. Boiling
   2. Poaching
   3. Steaming
   4. Stewing
   5. Frying

2. Dry-heat methods – involving cooking with dry heat:

1. Baking
2. Roasting
3. Grilling

Methods of Cooking: Boiling, Poaching & Steaming

Boiling

Cooking food in boiling water involves using enough water to cover the food, heating it to boiling point. This method is commonly employed for various foods such as root vegetables, meat, fish, eggs, legumes, pulses, and cereals.

Reasons for Boiling:

1. To soften food.
2. To extract nutrients from food.
3. To preserve nutrients in food.

Rules for Boiling:

1. Choose appropriately sized pans.
2. Ensure sufficient boiling liquid before adding food.
3. Gently boil food for a short time to prevent breakage.
4. Cut food into small pieces for nutrient extraction.
5. Place food directly in boiling water to preserve nourishment and flavor.
6. For old root vegetables, start with cold water and bring to a boil.

Various Methods Used in Boiling Foods:

1. Allow food to absorb cooking water (e.g., rice and beans).
2. Add water to food and strain the stock (e.g., yam and plantains).
3. Mix food in water before cooking (e.g., porridges, corn-food, yam flour).

Advantages of Boiling:

1. Quick and easy.
2. Easy digestion.
3. Requires minimal attention.
4. Economical and suitable for all health conditions.
5. Multiple foods can be boiled simultaneously.
6. Boiling liquids (stock) can be used for soups and sauces.

Disadvantages of Boiling:

1. Loss of water-soluble vitamins and minerals.
2. Limited development of color and flavor.
3. Food may look unattractive.
4. Comparatively long and slow cooking method.
5. Risk of food breakage.

Poaching

Poaching is a gentle cooking method suitable for delicate foods like eggs and fish. It involves cooking food in a pan with water, brought to a simmering point.

Poaching Process:

1. Bring enough water to cover eggs to a boil.
2. Add salt, lemon juice, or vinegar to enhance coagulation.
3. Gently drop eggs into simmering water until firm but not hard.
4. Alternatively, use a specially designed pan for poaching.

Advantages of Poaching:

1. Easily digestible, suitable for infants and weak digestive systems.
2. Maintains maximum food value.

Disadvantages of Poaching:

1. Requires constant attention and skill.
2. Suitable for only a few types of food.

Steaming

Steaming involves cooking food in steam from boiling water without direct contact. Suitable foods include small meat pieces, puddings, suet pastry, fresh dried fruits, root vegetables, and small fish or fillets.

Rules for Steaming:

1. Use boiling water before placing food.
2. Keep water boiling until the food is cooked.
3. Choose a pan with a tightly fitting lid.
4. Add hot water if needed during cooking.

Advantages of Steaming:

1. Light and easily digestible food.
2. No loss of nutrients in the water.
3. Conservative and labor-saving cooking method.
4. Little risk of overcooking.

Disadvantages of Steaming:

1. Slow cooking method.
2. Suitable for soft and small pieces of food.
3. Limited variety of foods.
4. Steamed foods may not be as palatable or attractive as those cooked using other methods.

Methods of Cooking: Stewing, Frying, Advantages & Disadvantages

Stewing

Stewing involves cooking food slowly in a covered pan with minimal liquid over an extended period. The dish is served with the retained water. This method is commonly employed in preparing various types of soups. Stewing maintains a simmering temperature of about 90-96ºC, whereas boiling reaches 100ºC.

Foods suitable for stewing include fresh and dried fruits, all vegetables except green vegetables, and tough cuts of meat.

Reasons for stewing:

1. To keep the food tender.
2. Stewing helps gelatinize and break down the connecting tissues of meat.
3. Protein coagulates without over-hardening during stewing.
4. Soluble nutrients and flavors become part of the serving liquid.

Rules for stewing:

1. Cut food into small pieces.
2. Use a covered saucepan.
3. Bring to a boil before reducing heat.
4. Use minimal liquid.
5. Avoid frequent opening of the saucepan.
6. Season well.

Advantages of stewing:

1. Economical cooking method.
2. Tenderizes tough food, making it easily digestible.
3. Requires minimal attention.
4. Conserves juices, minimizing waste.
5. Low fuel consumption during cooking.

Disadvantages of stewing:

1. Time-consuming.
2. Long cooking may reduce some valuable nutrients.
3. Requires more attention than boiling to prevent burning.

Frying

Frying is the process of cooking food in hot oil or fat, often requiring a coating for some foods.

Reasons for coating foods before frying:

1. To seal in nutrients.
2. Prevent breakage.
3. Maintain the food’s shape.
4. Achieve a crispy and appetizing texture.

Types of frying:

1. Shallow frying:
   1. Sautéing: Quick frying in a shallow pan of hot fat/oil.
   2. Griddle frying: Cooking on a lightly oiled griddle pan or metal plate.
   3. Stir frying: Fast frying in little oil using a flat pan.

1. Deep or French frying: Involves cooking with a significant amount of oil or fat.
2. Dry/self frying: Used for foods containing fat, where the fat melts during cooking.

Stages in heating oil for deep frying:

1. Melting stage: Fat changes from solid to liquid form.
2. Bubbling stage: Oil is heated, and water boils out, producing a bubbling sound.
3. Frying stage: Bubbling sound ceases, and a blue haze smoke is produced.
4. Decomposition: Overheating leads to charring and throat irritation.

Rules for frying:

1. Use clean oil or fat.
2. Heat oil to the correct temperature before frying.
3. Fry small quantities at a time.
4. Avoid frying food with water.
5. Minimize turning of foods.
6. Reheat oil before the next frying.
7. Do not cover fried food while hot.
8. Lower food gently into hot oil.
9. Turn off heat after frying and let oil cool before straining.

Fats and oils suitable for frying include vegetable oils, lard, butter, margarine, and fuller-butter from cow milk.

Advantages of frying:

1. Fast and quick cooking method.
2. Fried foods are attractive and tasty.
3. Coated foods retain soluble nutrients.

Disadvantages of frying:

1. Requires constant attention.
2. Not easily digestible, unsuitable for certain individuals.
3. Fried foods are less appetizing when cold.
4. Overheated fat may result in burnt and undercooked food.

Methods Of Cooking – Dry Heat, Baking, Roasting & Grilling

Baking

Baking involves cooking food with dry heat in a preheated space using direct radiation, typically in an oven. The method employs dry heat, and the food is surrounded by a flow of hot air, which cooks it. Baking is particularly suitable for items like cakes, pastries, bread, and biscuits.

Rules for Baking:

1. Preheat the oven before placing the food inside.
2. Use oven gloves when removing food from the oven.
3. Avoid overloading oven trays.
4. Minimize opening the oven door frequently.
5. Close the oven door gently, avoiding banging.
6. Do not bake foods that release moisture alongside crispy and dry foods.

Advantages of baking:

1. Baked foods are visually appealing and appetizing.
2. There is no loss of soluble nutrients.
3. It is fuel-efficient, allowing multiple dishes to be baked simultaneously.

Disadvantages of baking:

1. Requires constant attention to prevent burning.
2. Inefficient when baking only one dish.
3. Demands careful temperature control and skills.

Roasting

Roasting involves cooking with radiant heat, and it can be done in various ways, including hot ash or sand, on a grid over an open fire or heated charcoal, spit roasting, and using an oven.

Advantages of roasting:

1. Roasted foods are visually appealing and flavorful.
2. Retains the full flavor and nutrients of foods.
3. Foods cooked by roasting are less fatty than frying.

Disadvantages Of Roasting:

1. Requires constant attention.
2. Takes a longer time.
3. Consumes fuel and energy for heating.

Grilling

Grilling, also known as broiling, is a fast cooking method using radiant heat above or below the food. It can be done with a flat metal frame, gas flame, electric, charcoal, or wood. Grilled foods are brushed with fat or oil and cooked quickly on both sides.

Foods suitable for grilling:

1. Small cuts of meat, steak, lamb
2. Sausages, kidneys, liver, bacon
3. Cutlets of large fish and small fish

Advantages Of Grilling:

1. Grilled foods are tasty and easily digestible.
2. Quick cooking method.
3. No loss of soluble nutrients.
4. Less fatty than fried foods.

Disadvantages of grilling:

1. Suitable for tender cuts of food.
2. Requires constant attention.
3. Demands specific skills for optimal results.

Standard And Local Measuring Equipment

Measuring Equipment/Tools

Measuring equipment plays a crucial role in determining quantities of food items, ensuring consistency, recipe balance, quality requirements, accurate seasoning, and other necessary measurements in catering.

Standard tools:

1. Manual kitchen scale
2. Liquid measuring cups
3. Measuring spoons
4. Digital food scales
5. Electronic kitchen scales
6. Ladles, etc.

Local tools:

1. Tins (e.g., milk tins, tomato tins)
2. Kongo
3. Plastic paint buckets
4. Palm
5. Soup plates
6. Soup spoons, etc.

Measuring Equipment And Their Uses

Tools for weighing:

Scales are employed to weigh dry or solid ingredients. Two types of scales are commonly used:

1. a) Balance scale: Equipped with weights, the correct weight of the food item is achieved when it balances the weight on the other side, ensuring level equilibrium.
2. b) Spring scale: The correct weight is determined when the indicator needle points to the required weight on the dial, with the needle at zero before weighing begins.

Measuring cups:

Used for measuring liquids or dry ingredients, measuring cups require placement on a flat surface for liquid measurement, with readings taken at eye level. For dry ingredients, the contents should be leveled off before taking the reading.

Measuring spoons:

Available in various sizes, measuring spoons are utilized for measuring liquids and dry ingredients.

Conversion Methods

LOCAL                  STANDARD (METRIC)

Liquid

1. ½ teaspoon (tsp) 5ml
2. 1 teaspoon (tsp) 5ml
3. ½ tablespoon (tbsp) 5ml
4. 1 tablespoon (tbsp.) 15ml (60 drops)
5. 1 cup (milk tin) 150ml (16 tbsp)
6. ½ cup 75ml
   1. With measuring jug/cup:
7. 1 litre 1000ml
8. ½ litre 500ml
   4. 5 litres
9. 1 beer bottle 750ml
   1. 1 gallon

Dry/Solid

1. 1 heaped tablespoon of flour, cocoa, or custard powder 25g
2. 1 level tablespoon of rice, sugar, or salt 25g
3. 1 heaped tbsp. of rice, sugar, or salt 30g
4. 2 heaped tbsp. of bread crumbs 25g
5. ½ derica cup 400g
6. 1 big derica cup 850g
7. 1 large egg 50g

Personnel In The Food And Beverage Area

In contemporary food and beverage establishments, various methods are employed to manage staff, and distinct terminology is used to describe their roles. The deployment of staff in such establishments depends on factors like the type of establishment and the specific service method in use.

There are four essential requirements for deploying staff, although these may vary depending on the establishment and service approach:

1. Solid product knowledge.
2. Competence in technical skills.
3. Well-developed social skills.
4. The ability to work as part of a team.

Food and beverage staff play a crucial role in enhancing customers’ dining experiences. They must be capable of addressing customer needs and maintaining the overall atmosphere of a restaurant. A skilled food and beverage professional should anticipate individual customer needs and interpret their body language to provide personalized attention.

Food and Beverage Personnel and Their Functions

Food and Beverage Manager:

The Food and Beverage Manager serves as the overall head of the F & B department in a hotel. Depending on the establishment’s size, their responsibilities include implementing agreed policies or contributing to policy setting. The larger the organization, the less likely the manager is involved in policy setting.

Functions/Responsibilities of Food and Beverage Manager:

1. Ensure achievement of required profit margins in each financial period.
2. Update and compile new wine lists based on stock availability, current trends, and customer needs.
3. Compile menus in collaboration with the kitchen for various food service areas and special occasions.
4. Purchase all materials, both food and drinks.
5. Maintain quality in relation to the price paid.
6. Oversee staff training, sales promotions, and the highest professional standards.
7. Employ and dismiss staff.
8. Conduct regular meetings with section heads for effective operations.
9. Supervise sectional heads such as head chef, restaurant manager, banquet manager, etc.

Restaurant Manager/Supervisor:

The Restaurant Manager/Supervisor holds overall responsibility for organizing and administering a specific food and beverage service area.

Responsibilities of a Restaurant Manager:

1. Prepare duty rosters for restaurant staff.
2. Plan and organize all service activities, including staffing and training.
3. Promote team spirit through daily staff briefings.
4. Implement cost control techniques to reduce breakages, spoilages, and pilferages.
5. Assess daily restaurant performance based on covers sold, total food and beverage sales, plate wastage, etc.
6. Arrange suitable entertainment facilities.
7. Report to the Food and Beverage Manager.

Head Waiter/Maitre d’Hote/Supervisor:

The Head Waiter reports to the restaurant manager and the F & B manager.

Responsibilities of Head Waiter:

1. Oversee the staff team.
2. Deputize in the absence of the restaurant manager and ensure smooth restaurant functioning.
3. Ensure efficient preparation duties for service.
4. Receive and address guest complaints.
5. Relieve the restaurant manager on days off.
6. Communicate between restaurant staff and the kitchen.
7. Conduct cost control and bill presentation.
8. Observe the number of covers at each station and determine the cover per steward.

Station Head Waiter (Maitre d’hotel de Rang):

In larger establishments, restaurant areas are divided into sections, each with its own team led by a Station Head Waiter. They report to the Head Waiter and Restaurant Manager.

Responsibilities of Station Head Waiter:

1. Instruct other staff on correct service.
2. Take food and beverage orders and carry out table service.
3. Allocate station tables to waiters.
4. Check covers, tables, and sideboards.
5. Manage gueridon service.
6. Ensure smooth service and address guest complaints.

Station Waiters (Chef de Range):

Station Waiters, reporting to the Station Head Waiter, provide service to a set of tables within the restaurant area.

Responsibilities of Station Waiters/Waitresses:

1. Provide service to a designated station.
2. Attend briefing before restaurant opening.
3. Complete mis-en-place before opening.
4. Set tables with clean linen, cutlery, glasses, etc.
5. Greet and seat guests.
6. Take orders and serve food and drinks.
7. Present bills and receive payments.

Junior/Assistant Waiters/Waitresses (Demi-Chef de Rang):

Junior Waiters, similar to Station Waiters but with less experience, assist in various tasks.

Responsibilities of Junior Waiters:

1. Report for briefing well-groomed.
2. Assist waiters in setting tables.
3. Serve food during busy periods.
4. Remove soiled dishes.

Reception Head Waiter:

The Reception Head Waiter handles bookings, keeps the booking diary updated, welcomes guests, escorts them to their seats, and assists in compiling duty rosters.

Food And Beverage Personnel And Their Functions

Bar Personnel And Their Functions

Bar manager:

The bar manager, reporting directly to the F & B manager and collaborating closely with the restaurant manager, is responsible for overseeing the entire bar operation. Key duties include ensuring the bar stocks all listed drinks, supervising bar operations, managing mis-en-place, and ensuring adequate bar equipment provision.

Bar-man/bar tender/bar keeper/mixologist:

Individuals in these roles must possess comprehensive knowledge of all offered drinks, both alcoholic and non-alcoholic, along with expertise in cocktail ingredients. Compliance with liquor licensing laws is essential.

Responsibilities include receiving drinks from the bar manager, stocking the bar, preparing and mixing drinks, maintaining timekeeping and bar stock records, supervising bar operations, and instructing and training other bar staff.

Note: A mixologist is someone responsible for crafting and serving alcoholic beverages, often creating new mixed drinks.)

Wine butler/steward/sommeliers:

Those in this role need knowledge of foreign languages, beverage laws, wine, its suitability with various dishes, and wine handling and care. They should also be familiar with stock-taking and cocktail mixing.

Responsibilities include presenting the wine list, assisting customers with wine selection, uncorking bottles in front of guests, fetching ordered wines with the help of commis waiters, and serving all alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks.

Banquets:

Banquets, special events such as weddings and conferences, require dedicated personnel for their successful execution. The banquet manager oversees the entire operation, while the banquet head waiter and other staff ensure smooth service during the event.

Banquet manager:

Reporting to the F & B manager, the banquet manager is responsible for the administration, operation, booking, and selling of banquet facilities. Duties also include preparing schedules, taking inventory of equipment, and collaborating with the chef on menu preparation.

Banquet head waiter:

As the head of the waiting team, the banquet head waiter reports to the banquet manager and oversees mis-en-place, job allocations, equipment availability, and ensures meals are served at the right temperature.

Banquet waiters and casual staff:

These staff members handle various tasks during banquets, including arranging furniture, setting table appointments, serving food and drinks, and clearing tables after the occasion.

Floor Waiter (Chef d’tage):

Serving guests in their rooms, the floor waiter is responsible for room service, presenting the food order and bill to the guest.

Lounge Waiter (Chef de salle):

Responsible for serving foods and drinks in lounge and waiting areas, the lounge waiter focuses on finger foods and snacks.

Kitchen Staff/ Kitchen Brigade

This pertains to the collaborative team that operates on a shift basis under the chef de cuisine (head chef) within the kitchen.

Head Chef (CHEF DE CUISINE)

The head chef primarily handles supervisory and administrative duties in larger establishments. However, in smaller establishments with fewer staff, they also engage in food preparation as needed. The head chef reports to and collaborates with the F & B manager.

Functions:

1. a) Compiling menus.
2. b) Organizing the kitchen.
3. c) Creating duty rosters for kitchen staff.
4. d) Ordering food supplies as needed.
5. e) Supervising the kitchen and staff.
6. f) Providing advice to management on kitchen equipment and utensil purchases.
7. g) Overseeing kitchen hygiene and sanitation.

Assistant Or Deputy Chef (Sous chef)

The assistant chef relieves the head chef during off-duty periods and serves as the right-hand person to the chef.

Functions:

1. a) Supervising kitchen work for smooth operation.
2. b) Collaborating with the head chef.
3. c) Substituting for absent cooks.
4. d) Working in various kitchen sections.

Chef De Parties (Head cooks)

These chefs manage individual sections of the kitchen and specialize in specific tasks.

Duties/Functions by Parties:

Sauce party (le saucier): Prepares various stocks and sauces, as well as meat, poultry, and game dishes not roasted or grilled.

Roasted party (rotisseur): Roasts and grills meat, poultry, and game, including grilled and deep-fried foods.

Fish party (poissonnier): Prepares all fish dishes, fish sauces, and garnishes, as well as skins and portions fish.

Vegetable party (permentier): In charge of vegetable garnishes for main dishes and prepares vegetable and potato dishes.

Butcher (le boucher): Cuts meat carcasses for cooking under the supervision of the chef or sous chef.

Pastry party (le patissier): Prepares desserts and pastries.

Baker (le Boulanger): Bakes bread rolls, croissants, cakes, etc.

Larder cook: Prepares food for cooking by other parties, including preparing poultry, meat, cleaning and filleting fish, etc. These are assistants who work with each head cook in various sections.

Apprentices (L’apprenti):

Individuals learning the trade who are periodically rotated through different kitchen sections to gain knowledge.

Aboyeur (The barker):

In charge of announcing the menu, calling out ordered dishes to cook, and alerting waiters when they are ready. Controls the hot plate during food service.

Kitchen Porters (les garçon de cuisine):

Responsible for general duties such as carrying food between sections, changing and washing dirty linen, and cleaning the kitchen working area.

Still Room Man (le garçon):

Prepares coffee, tea, breakfast foods, hot beverages, and hot chocolate ordered from the restaurant during the day.

House-Keeping Personnel And Receptionists

Housekeeping involves creating a tranquil, comfortable, safe, and aesthetically pleasing environment. In a hotel, the housekeeping department, an operational unit, is responsible for maintaining cleanliness, upkeep, and enhancement of the entire property, including guest rooms, public areas, back areas, and surroundings.

The department ensures a clean and comfortable environment, directly influencing a guest’s experience. Responsibilities include cleaning and maintaining the entire hotel, establishing a welcoming atmosphere, providing and managing linen inventory, supplying uniforms, handling laundry requirements, managing lost and found articles, staff training and supervision, fostering collaboration with other departments, floral decoration, landscape maintenance, and enforcing safety and security regulations.

Housekeeping personnel are categorized into managerial (Chief Executive/Head Housekeeper), supervisory (Assistant Housekeeper, Floor Housekeeper/Supervisor), and unskilled (Room Attendant, Housekeeping Porter, Public Area Cleaner). Each category has specific functions:

Chief Executive/Head Housekeeper:

1. Organize and supervise the housekeeping department.
2. Create duty rosters and ensure adherence.
3. Supervise staff discipline and conduct.
4. Liaise between maintenance and housekeeping.
5. Provide uniforms, organize staff training, and ensure hygiene and safety.
6. Manage lost articles, approve supply requisitions, and handle employee matters.

Assistant/Deputy Housekeeper:

1. Reports to the executive housekeeper.
2. Oversees cleanliness of guest rooms, public areas, and back-of-the-house areas.
3. Manages housekeeping supplies inventory and updates records.
4. Provides room lists to the front office and oversees hotel linen.
5. Assists in staff appraisal and disciplinary actions.

Floor Housekeepers/Floor Supervisors:

1. Reports to the assistant and executive housekeepers.
2. Oversees multiple floors, ensuring equipment, maintenance, and security.
3. Issues floor keys, releases clean rooms to reception, and supervises linen requisition.
4. Handles minor guest and staff complaints, ensuring compliance with housekeeping policies.

Room Attendants/Chambermaids/Room Maids:

1. Responsible for servicing guest bedrooms and related areas.
2. Clean, tidy, and change bed linen in assigned rooms.
3. Attend daily briefings, perform evening room checks, and report lost articles to the housekeeper.

Floor Porter/House Porter:

1. Handles heavy tasks like moving furniture.
2. Reports directly to the head housekeeper.
3. Assists with guest room changes and supports room attendants during peak periods.

Bed Linen:

1. Includes mattress covers, bed sheets, pillowcases, bedspreads, and blankets.
2. Characteristics of good bed linen include comfort, appearance, grease resistance, coolness, absorbency, smoothness, and durability.

Bed Making:

1. Requires bed and mattress, two bed sheets, pillows and cases, bed cover, blanket, and an underlay.

Reception/Front Office:

1. Defined as the official welcome and reception of guests.
2. Main sales outlet of the hotel, where guests check-in, check-out, and settle bills.
3. Guests assess services and make inquiries at the reception.

Receptionist:

1. A sales personnel or clerk found at the front office.
2. Requires good general education and organization knowledge.

Duties and Responsibilities of a Receptionist:

1. Welcomes, checks-in, and registers guests.
2. Confirms room status with housekeeping.
3. Handles bill adjustments and customer complaints.
4. Maintains up-to-date reception books.
5. Manages customer check-outs and departure lists.
6. Sends arrival lists to all departments.

Food Service

Food service involves the preparation, delivery, and serving of ready-to-eat foods/meals in catering establishments. It is essentially the presentation of prepared meals to diners/guests.

Types Of Food Service

1. Table Service
2. Self Service
3. Specialized Service

Table Service

Table service is a type of service where the customer is served at a set table.

Types of Table Services

Gueridon Service

1. An advanced form of table service, often found in establishments with an à la carte menu and elevated service levels.
2. “Gueridon” refers to a movable service table or trolley used for serving food.
3. Involves serving food onto customers’ plates at the gueridon, requiring higher service skills, expensive equipment, and a large service area.

   Mis-en-place for Gueridon Service

1. Standardized layout in establishments with gueridon service to meet service standards and ensure safety.
2. Gueridon top and under shelf covered, cutlery layout similar to a sideboard for efficiency.
3. Hot plates or food warmers on the left side, with a variety of under flats for serving vegetables and sauces.
4. Check pads on the waiter’s side board for order tracking.

   Procedures for Gueridon Service

1. Chef and commis service.
2. Always push the gueridon for control and safety.
3. Keep the gueridon in one position for the entire course.
4. Use spoons and forks in each hand for better control.
5. Present the dish to the customer, state the name, and return it to the gueridon.
6. Transfer food to plates carefully to avoid drips.
7. Wipe down the gueridon after serving a table.

Silver/English Service

1. Presentation and service of food by waiting staff using silver dishes.
2. Food presented to the host for approval and then served to guests from the left with a silver spoon and fork.

   Features of Silver Service

1. Food served from the left, drinks from the right.
2. Meals served from platters.
3. Service starts to the host’s right (usually the female guest) and continues clockwise.
4. Plates cleared from the right.
5. Less wastage as unused food returns to the kitchen.

   Advantages of Silver Service

  Elegant and personalized service to guests.

   Disadvantages of Silver Service

1. Large investment in silver equipment.
2. Requires one waiter per table.

3. American/Plated Service
4. Beverages and food served from the right, clearing also done from the right.
5. Pre-plated meals brought from the kitchen for each guest.

   Advantages of American/Plated Service

1. Fast service.

   Disadvantages of American/Plated Service

1. Wastage of food.
2. Not personalized.

Family Service

The main course is brought to the table in a large dish, and everyone participates in serving food onto individual plates. Other courses like desserts are served in small bowls for guests to help themselves. It encourages everyone to participate in the food service.

Types Of Food Service

Self Service

Self-service is a common feature in cafeterias and canteens, where customers or guests take charge of serving themselves with minimal assistance from waitstaff.

Types of Self Service

1. Cafeteria/Counter Service: Customers queue at a service counter, selecting their menu items before placing them on a tray. They gather utensils and find tables for dining.

2. Free Flow: Customers choose items from a counter in a designated food service area, moving freely to various service points before exiting through the payment point.

3. Echelon: Counters are arranged at angles within a free-flow area, optimizing space. Each counter may offer a different main course dish.

4. Buffets: Guests serve themselves from a variety of dishes displayed on a long table. The format depends on the occasion and the host’s preferences.

Types of Buffet

1. Finger Buffet: Guests use their fingers to select and consume food, with napkins provided for convenience.

2. Stands Up or Fork Buffet: Guests choose and transfer food to a plate, eating with a fork. No elaborate cutlery is provided.

3. Display/Sit Down Buffet: Guests select their food and consume it at a table, returning to their seats between courses. The layout is similar to standard banquet setups.

Basic Principles/Format for Setting up a Buffet Room

(i) Place the buffet prominently in the room.

(ii) Ensure sufficient space for display and presentation.

(iii) Keep the buffet easily accessible to the still room and wash-up areas.

(iv) Allow ample space for customer circulation.

(v) Provide occasional tables and chairs.

(vi) Create an attractive presentation for a pleasant atmosphere.

Single Point Service

In single-point service, customers order, pay, and receive their food and beverages from a single location, such as a counter, bar, or vending machine area.

Types of Single Point Service

1. Takeaway: Orders are served from a single point, and customers consume off-premises. This includes drive-thru options.

2. Fast Food: Originally service at a counter, now describes establishments offering a limited menu with fast-service, dining areas, and takeaway options.

3. Kiosks: Outstations serving peak demand in specific locations, open for customer orders or restricted to staff.

4. Food Court: Autonomous counters where customers order and eat or buy from multiple counters for separate eating or takeaway.

5. Bar: A place where drinks are sold, allowing customers to order for takeaway or consumption on the premises.

Vending Service

Vending involves selling food and beverages through automated machines, found in various locations.

Vending Machines

1. Merchandiser: Displays products for sale, including refrigerated drinks, pre-packaged meals, and snacks.

2. Hot Beverages Vendor: Mixes powdered ingredients with hot water to produce drinks.

3. In-Cup System: Ingredients are pre-packaged in cups, with hot water added.

4. Micro-Vend System: Offers a selection of hot or cold foods for customers to heat in a microwave.

Advantages of Food Service Vending

1. Low-cost operation.
2. 24-hour service availability.
3. Strict portion control.
4. Wide variety of snacks and beverages.
5. Reduced wastage when customer demand is accurately gauged.

Disadvantages of Vending

1. Limited human presence.
2. Susceptible to power failures.
3. Repairs may take significant time if a machine malfunctions.

Specialized Service

This service operates in a different location that is not specifically designed for its purpose, with food and drinks brought directly to the customer.

There are various specialized services, including:

1. Tray Service: Providing whole or part of a meal on a tray to customers, such as in hospital beds, inside trains, aircraft seats, etc.

2. Trolley Service: Serving food and beverages from a trolley outside the dining areas, catering to office workers at their desks, customers in aircraft or train seats.

3. Home Delivery Service: Delivering food to customers’ homes or workplaces, including services like meals on wheels, pizza home delivery, or sandwich delivery to offices.

4. Lounge Service: Offering a variety of foods and beverages in lounge areas, such as hotel lounges or airport lounges.

5. Room Service: Providing a variety of food and beverages in guest bedrooms or meeting rooms.

6. Drive-in Service: Allowing customers to park their vehicles and be served at their vehicles.

Banquet Service

Banquet service involves an elaborate and ceremonious serving of meals for a large number of people, covering events like conferences, wedding receptions, luncheon, and dinner parties. A dedicated banqueting brigade of waiters is employed to handle the service of foods and drinks.

There are two types of banqueting services:

1. Buffet: Guests serve themselves and sit at tables pre-set with cutlery, glasses, etc.
2. Sit-down Style: Guests are served by waiters.

Table Laying And Table Setting

Table Laying Procedure

The process involves covering restaurant/dining tables with clean, crisp, and well-starched linen tablecloths and napkins, enhancing the room’s attractiveness. It’s essential to minimize handling to avoid creasing, ensuring proper table cloth placement on the first attempt.

Table Cloth Placement:

Before laying the table cloth, ensure the table and chairs are correctly positioned. The table top should be clean and level. Correct any wobbling with a cork slice. Select the appropriate size of the folded table cloth. For larger tables requiring two cloths, overlap them away from the room entrance for a polished presentation. Open the screen-folded cloth on the table, with the inverted fold on top.

Steps for Placing the Table Cloth:

1. Position your thumb on the inverted fold and spread arms, lifting the cloth to let the bottom folds fall freely.
2. Place the cloth over the opposite edge of the table.
3. Release the middle fold, drawing the cloth towards you until the table is covered.
4. Ensure an even fall on all sides and make adjustments if needed.

Correct Table Cloth Placement:

1. Corners should align with table legs.
2. The cover lap should be even.
3. Creases should run uniformly in the room.

Table Setting

Refers to arranging tables with serving dishes and eating utensils for serving and eating.

Types of Table Settings:

1. Informal Table Setting: Everyday use, minimal cutlery, no pre-laid table cover, suitable for family settings.
2. Formal Table Setting: For special occasions, follows set rules, pre-set with individual cutlery and plates.

Items Needed for Table Setting:

1. Place mats
2. Table napkins/Serviettes
3. Cutlery
4. Menu card and table number
5. Cruet set
6. Serving plates
7. Water goblets
8. Wine goblets
9. Side plates
10. Butter dish
11. Ash trays, etc.

Note: Some items depend on the meal being served.

Steps for Table Setting:

1. Arrange cutlery on a service salver in the order of use.
2. Place forks on the left, knives on the right.
3. Ensure cutlery edges are an inch from the table/mat.
4. Turn up spoon bowls and fork prongs, direct knife edges toward the plate.
5. Turn glasses up, placing them above the cutlery.
6. Folded serviette/napkin on the side plate, in a glass cup, or at the table center.
7. Place cruet set within easy reach.
8. Add a low flower vase at the table center.

Guidelines for Table Laying/Setting:

1. Determine the number of persons and menu.
2. Keep the design simple and natural.
3. Use colors and materials for an attractive design.
4. Ensure the table setting complements the meal.
5. Prioritize comfort and enjoyment.
6. Clean all materials properly.
7. Place cutlery close together.

Table Cover

In the context of dining, the term “cover” has two main meanings. Traditionally, it refers to the practice of draping a large white napkin over the entire course and dishes, symbolizing that precautions have been taken to prevent guest poisoning.

In modern food service, a “cover” denotes the specific place setting for an individual’s meal, encompassing all the necessary tableware. It is essentially the arrangement for one person at the table, and the term can also indicate the number of guests to be accommodated. For instance, “100 covers” means the tables are set for 100 guests.

A cover can also represent the complete set of cutlery, crockery, glassware, and linen needed for a particular place setting based on the type of meal and service. The characteristics of a well-balanced cover include proper spacing of cutlery, keeping them at least an inch away from the table’s edge, placing knives and spoons on the right side, forks on the left, and ensuring the water glass is positioned at the tip of the large knife.

There are various types of covers, such as:

1. A La Carte Cover: This type involves laying cutlery for each course just before it is served. The cover includes a fish plate at the center, a fish knife and fork on either side, a side knife, napkin on the fish plate, water and wine glasses at the tip of the fish knife, cruet set, and a low flower vase. Cutlery is added course by course based on the customer’s selections.

2. Classic or Basic Lay Up: This approach is similar to A La Carte but may use a large decorative cover plate instead of a fish plate at the center. The fish knife and fork may be replaced with a joint knife and fork.

3. Table D’Hote Cover: In this case, cutlery for the entire meal is laid out before the first course is served. Unnecessary cutlery is removed after the order is taken, and extra items are added as needed. The cover includes a napkin at the center, a side plate with a side knife, a fish fork on the left side of the side plate, a soup spoon on the extreme right of the napkin, a fish knife before the soup spoon, a joint knife between the fish knife and napkin, a wine glass at the tip of the knives, a water glass beside the wine glass, a sweet fork in front of the napkin with prongs towards the glasses, and a sweet spoon following with the bowl towards the cruet set and the handle towards the glasses.

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