Table of Contents
Part of Speech
What constitutes a part of speech?
A part of speech refers to a set of words employed in a specific manner. For instance, words like “run,” “jump,” and “be” denote actions or states, placing them within the category of verbs. Essentially, the English language classifies all words into eight distinct groups, each assigned a unique role or function within a sentence.
The designated English parts of speech encompass nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. It’s worth noting that numerous words in English serve multiple roles, functioning as different parts of speech depending on their role in a given sentence.
For instance, in the sentence “I would like a drink,” the word “drink” serves as a noun. Conversely, in the sentence “They drink too much,” the same word “drink” functions as a verb. Thus, the part of speech a word assumes hinges on its specific role in a sentence.
A noun is a linguistic element that designates a person, place, or object.
Illustrative examples include Sarah, lady, cat, New York, Canada, room, school, football, and reading.
Exemplary sentences:
The term “noun” originates from the Latin word “nomen,” denoting “name.” Nouns serve as how we identify individuals, locations, and entities.
Abstract Nouns:
Concrete Nouns:
Common Nouns:
Proper Nouns:
Countable Nouns:
Uncountable Nouns:
A pronoun serves as a substitute for a noun in a sentence. For instance, instead of saying, “Lisa is a nice girl,” you can replace the noun “Lisa” with the pronoun “She,” resulting in the sentence: “She is a nice girl.” In this case, “She” is functioning as a pronoun.
Examples of pronouns include: I, he, it, we, them, us, mine, itself.
Sample sentences illustrating the use of pronouns:
The term “pronoun” is derived from “pro” (meaning “substitute”) + “noun.”
Types of Pronouns:
Personal pronouns represent individuals or objects. These include: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him, her, us, them.
“Demonstrative” implies “showing or making something clear.” Demonstrative pronouns point to specific things, such as this, that, these, those. “This” and “these” refer to items near in space or time, while “that” and “those” refer to those farther away.
Example sentences:
“Interrogative” pertains to their use in questions. Interrogative pronouns include: who, whom, which, what, whoever, whatever, etc. “Who” and “whom” refer to people, while “which” and “what” relate to animals and objects.
Example sentences:
“Possessive” signifies ownership. Possessive pronouns indicate possession and include: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.
Example sentences:
“Relative” denotes a connection with something. Relative pronouns link different parts of a sentence and include: who, whom, which, that, whoever, etc.
Example sentences:
Reflexive pronouns indicate an action directed back to the performer. They conclude with “-self” (singular) or “-selves” (plural). Examples include myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, and themselves.
Sample sentences:
Intensive pronouns serve to emphasize the subject of the sentence. Though they share the same form as reflexive pronouns, their purpose is distinct.
Illustrative examples:
Reciprocal pronouns denote actions exchanged between two entities, treating each other similarly. In English, two reciprocal pronouns are utilized: each other and one another.
Instances:
Indefinite pronouns, characterized by their lack of specificity, do not refer to any particular individual or object.
Exemplary pronouns:
Anything, everybody, another, each, few, many, none, some.
Sample sentences:
An adjective is a term that characterizes a person or object.
Examples: Large, attractive, costly, green, circular, French, noisy, swift, plump.
Sample sentences:
He possesses sizable blue eyes.
The new vehicle malfunctioned.
The elderly lady spoke in a hushed tone.
The term “adjective” is derived from the Latin word jacere, meaning “to throw.”
Types of adjectives:
Adjectives can be categorized into various types:
Opinion – Nice, attractive, foolish, unique, costly, etc.
Size – Big, small, large, tiny, enormous, little, etc.
Age – Young, old, new, ancient, antique, etc.
Shape – Round, square, flat, straight, etc.
Color – Blue, red, white, black, dark, bright, yellowish, etc.
Origin – Italian, British, Mexican, western, southern, etc.
Material – Metal, wooden, plastic, golden, etc.
Determiners:
A determiner is a word preceding a noun that specifies the person or thing being discussed.
Examples: A, an, the, my, your, some, any, several, enough, any.
Sample sentences:
I own a red hat.
Kindly hand me my bag.
Some people opted to leave.
She doesn’t want any money.
They viewed several movies.
Some individuals consider determiners a subtype of adjectives. What makes determiners unique is that usually, only one determiner can be used at a time.
Incorrect: He has the my ticket.
Correct: He has my ticket / He has the ticket.
Nouns acting as adjectives:
Occasionally, nouns serve as adjectives, preceding another noun to describe it.
Examples:
Sports car
Orange juice
Television station
Coffee shop
Book cover
The order of adjectives:
A noun can be described by multiple adjectives.
Examples:
“She bought a new red Italian table.”
“He is a great, successful father.”
There are specific rules for the correct order of these adjectives, generally following this sequence: Determiner -> opinion -> size -> age -> shape -> color -> origin -> material -> a word describing purpose/function.
Examples:
A nice little coffee shop (Determiner -> opinion -> size -> purpose/function word)
My huge new swimming pool (Determiner -> size -> age -> purpose/function word)
Several Chinese plastic cups (Determiner -> origin -> material)
The round yellow ball (Determiner -> shape -> color)
Adjectives of the same type:
When several adjectives of the same type are used, they should be separated by commas or a conjunction (and, but).
Examples:
A cheap, good meal
A happy, smart man
The beautiful, original painting
My nice and sweet cat
An expensive but important trip
Comparative Adjectives:
The term “comparative” involves evaluating something in relation to something else. Comparative adjectives indicate which thing is superior, inferior, more significant, less significant, more pleasant, larger, smaller, fatter, thinner, or more perilous, among other qualities.
Examples:
Superior, inferior, larger, smaller, more pleasant, fatter, thinner, more dangerous.
Sample sentences:
She excels as a student compared to her brothers.
The test turned out to be worse than my expectations.
You possess greater strength than I do.
He appears to be in better health.
You are more beautiful than she is.
The term “superlative” denotes the highest degree or quality. Superlative adjectives reveal which thing is the best, the worst, the strongest, the smallest, the cheapest, or the most expensive, among other characteristics.
Examples:
Best, worst, strongest, smallest, cheapest, most expensive.
Sample sentences:
You hold the position of being my best friend.
This marks the worst day of my life.
Even the smallest contribution makes a difference.
This stands as the most expensive restaurant I’ve ever come across.
A verb, either a single word or a group of words, serves to convey an action or a state.
Illustrative Instances:
Engage, leap, slumber, consume, ponder, exist, alter, metamorphose, steer, accomplish.
Sample Sentences:
We enjoyed a delightful lunch.
I believe he is correct.
He journeyed for extended periods.
The term “verb” originates from the Latin word “verbum,” signifying “word.”
Auxiliary Verbs (also referred to as “helping verbs”)
Auxiliary verbs, or helping verbs, collaborate with the main verb in a sentence to articulate the action or state.
Main verb + auxiliary verb = a comprehensive notion. The key auxiliary verbs include: be, am, is, are, was, were, do, did, have, has, had.
Illustrative Sentences (the auxiliary verb is in bold, and the main verb is underlined):
They are engaged in jogging.
She was in a seated position.
We were patiently waiting for hours.
Is she presently asleep?
He was unaware of the solution.
We have traversed a considerable distance.
Has she acknowledged receipt of any of my letters?
Do you partake in smoking?
Will she extend her assistance?
A compound verb comprises an auxiliary verb coupled with the main verb.
Instances: was playing, has eaten, and doesn’t want.
They were deliberating about their future.
He refrained from disclosing the truth to us.
I have completed my homework.
She will rendezvous with us there.
Stative verbs convey a state rather than an action. Examples include be, seem, love, own, want, sound, have, know, and understand.
Example sentences:
Stative verbs are generally not employed in progressive tenses.
Examples:
Incorrect: He is wanting to see you.
Correct: He wants to see you.
Incorrect: I am knowing what to do.
Correct: I know what to do.
Incorrect: They are seeming nice.
Correct: They seem nice.
However, if the same verb describes an actual action (not a state), it can be used in progressive tenses.
Example:
When the verb “have” denotes “own,” it is a state, and we do not use it in progressive tenses.
Incorrect: I am having a laptop.
Correct: I have a laptop.
When the verb “have” denotes “eat,” it is an actual action, and we can use it in progressive tenses.
Correct: I am having lunch with Kate.
Correct: I have lunch with Kate.
Dynamic Verbs
Dynamic verbs are the antithesis of stative verbs, signifying real actions. Examples include jump, swim, catch, write, call, sleep, hit, open, and speak.
Example sentences:
Dynamic verbs can be employed in progressive tenses.
Correct: He is drinking water.
Correct: He drinks water.
Regular verbs adhere to the rule: Past form of the verb = present form of the verb + ed / d.
Examples:
Specific rules govern adding “d” or “ed” to a verb, detailed in the Regular Verbs and Irregular Verbs section.
Irregular verbs deviate from the aforementioned rule, and there are numerous examples.
Examples:
A phrasal verb refers to a verb combined with either an adverb or a preposition, resulting in a distinct meaning.
Illustrations:
An adverb is a word that provides additional information or describes a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or even an entire sentence. Typically, adverbs answer questions such as:
An adverb can modify a verb (“She runs quickly.”), an adjective (“She is so beautiful.”), another adverb (“She smokes very rarely.”), or an entire sentence (“Naturally, you don’t have to come.”).
The term “adverb” originates from the Latin ad- (meaning in addition) and verbum (meaning word). While many adverbs follow the pattern of adding “ly” to an adjective (e.g., quickly, strangely, deadly), there are exceptions. For instance, some adverbs, such as fast, very, hard, home, just, too, well, never, and sometimes, do not end in “ly.”
English adverbs can be categorized into various types, including adverbs of degree, adverbs of manner, adverbs of place, adverbs of time, adverbs of frequency, adverbs of duration, adverbs of probability, comparative adverbs, and superlative adverbs.
Adverbs indicating degree reveal the intensity or extent of an action or state. They address questions such as: To what extent? How much?
Illustrations:
Extremely, exceedingly, entirely, perfectly, partially, nearly.
Sample sentences:
His concern for you is extremely evident.
You are entirely correct.
We nearly caught the train.
Manner adverbs
Adverbs of manner illuminate the method in which an action is performed. They address the question: How?
Illustrations: Skillfully, poorly, gracefully, slowly, loudly, quietly, joyfully, sadly, discreetly, weakly.
Sample sentences:
He managed the situation skillfully.
She secretly listened to their conversation.
The children ran joyfully to their father.
Adverbs of place reveal the location of the action or state. They address the question: Where?
Illustrations: At home, here, there, outside, inside, away, around, anywhere, abroad, up, down, out.
Sample sentences:
We are currently here.
He went to his home.
We found him outside.
She looked up.
Adverbs of time indicate the timing of an action or state. They address the question: When?
Illustrations: Now, soon, later, yesterday, tomorrow, early, before, lately, recently.
Sample sentences:
Let’s have a conversation now.
I will do it later.
He promised to write back soon.
What are you doing tomorrow?
We hadn’t met before.
Adverbs denoting frequency provide information about how often an action or state occurs. They address the question: How frequently?
Instances:
Always, never, sometimes, often, rarely, usually, occasionally.
Sample sentences:
Adverbs indicating duration reveal the length of an action or state, addressing the question: For how long?
Instances:
Forever, constantly, temporarily, briefly.
Sample sentences:
Adverbs indicating probability demonstrate the likelihood of an action or state occurring, addressing the question: How likely?
Instances:
Certainly, maybe, probably, possibly, surely.
Sample sentences:
“Comparative” involves comparing something to something else. Comparative adverbs illustrate which action or state is superior, inferior, stronger, weaker, etc.
Instances:
More, less, better, worse, faster, slower, farther, closer.
Sample sentences:
“Superlative” denotes the highest degree. Superlative adverbs reveal which action or state is the best, the strongest, etc.
Instances:
Best, most, least, worst, strongest, fastest, slowest.
Sample sentences:
A preposition is a term employed prior to a noun or pronoun to establish a connection with another word in a sentence. Its typical purpose is to indicate aspects such as location, direction, time, and similar concepts.
Exemplars include: On, in, at, by, under, above, beside, to, out, from, for.
Illustrative sentences:
Investigate beneath the couch.
He journeyed towards the school.
This letter is designated for your attention.
The term “preposition” originates from the Latin word praeponere, meaning “put before.” Consequently, prepositions customarily precede the noun or pronoun in a sentence.
A conjunction serves to connect different parts of a sentence.
Illustrative conjunctions include: And, but, or, because, so.
For instance:
The reason he failed the test is that he lacked comprehension of the subject.
Famished, we opted for pizza as a result.
The term “conjunction” originates from the Latin word conjungere, meaning “to join together.”
Moving on to interjections:
An interjection is a brief sound, word, or phrase utilized to convey the speaker’s emotion.
Examples include: Oh! Look out! Ow! Hey! Wow! Ah! Um…
In context:
The term “interjection” is derived from the Latin word interjicere, meaning “to throw between.”
Distinction between fiction and non-fiction lies in their truthfulness. Fiction constitutes imaginative elements, such as characters, events, and places, fabricated by the writer, while non-fiction encompasses real entities—people, events, places, and writings based on facts.
Non-fiction delves into actual occurrences, emphasizing real ideas, events, and individuals, whereas fiction centers on the creation of imaginary concepts.
Non-fiction provides information about events that genuinely transpired, whether in the past or present, whereas fiction unfolds in fictitious settings. Notably, fictions are crafted narratives for entertainment, while non-fictions serve an informative purpose.
Autobiographies, history books, and journals exemplify non-fiction, whereas novels, short stories, and films exemplify fiction. Fiction is a product of imagination, a form of artifice, while non-fiction is grounded in reality.
Fiction writers aim to immerse the audience in the belief that the depicted scenarios are unfolding, guided solely by their creativity. Conversely, non-fiction writers adhere to factual accuracy, eschewing imaginative elements.
Fiction thrives on symbolism, artifice, and imaginative expression, while non-fiction relies on straightforwardness and serves as a recollection of factual occurrences. Fiction entails invented stories, whereas non-fiction deals exclusively with existing facts. Fiction embodies the writer’s imagination, while non-fiction is a reflection of actual events.
In summary, fiction lacks truth, whereas non-fiction is based on reality. Fiction explores imaginative ideas, while non-fiction focuses on actual events. Fictions are imaginative narratives, while non-fictions are grounded in factual content. Lastly, fictions entertain, and non-fictions inform.
The examples mentioned earlier (apologies for the repetition, concern) belong to this category. This category, as a whole, tends to convey emotions, such as happiness, joy, satisfaction, delight (all with about/for/with), anger, annoyance, fury, upset, disappointment (all with about/with), and feelings of anxiety and embarrassment (both with about/for).
However, there are also emotion-inducing adjectives that pair with only one preposition: surprised, amazed, and shocked (all at), interested (in), bored and satisfied (with), and worried (about) (as passive participles, these can also be followed by “by” to indicate an action instead of a state – see 66. Variable Meanings of Passive Verbs – but this grammatical usage does not serve as a partner preposition in the same sense).
When the preposition is variable, “about” is typically required with an existing situation. For instance, one might be happy (or angry, concerned, embarrassed, etc.) about the performance of a football team. Even the use of “about” before a person directs attention to a situation involving them rather than to them as individuals. A less common alternative to “about” is “at.”
The use of “with” after positive adjectives like “happy” also introduces situations, particularly when the meaning is “having” rather than “seeing.” For example, one could be happy with one’s own job and happy about another person’s. However, after negative adjectives such as “angry,” “with” must be followed by a living cause of the emotion (e.g., angry with the government).
“For” usually pairs with living things. After positive adjectives like “happy,” it indicates the speaker’s satisfaction with the good fortune of the mentioned entity. For instance, if one is happy for a newlywed couple, one is happy that they have achieved something nice.
This is in contrast to being happy about them, which merely expresses approval of their situation, regardless of whether it is favorable or unfavorable. On the other hand, after negative adjectives, “for” seems to have a future reference: being concerned for refugees expresses a fear that something bad might happen to them, while “concerned about” suggests that something bad has already occurred.
Other adjectives with alternative prepositions include “good” (at/to/for), “disgusted” (at/with), and “responsible” (to/for).
Nouns: Some nouns have a partner preposition preceding them, e.g., “on an occasion,” while others have it following them, e.g., “a limit on…” (see 111. Words with their Own Preposition). However, variable prepositions seem to mainly follow their noun. A few examples are discussed elsewhere in this blog post, specifically in post 78. Infinitive versus Preposition after Nouns.
In some cases, the variability of a preposition creates a contrast between “all” and “some” of something. Consider the noun “news.”
“News of an event” means that the entire event is the news, whereas “news about it” indicates that the event is already known, and the news provides additional information, i.e., a part of it.
Other nouns exhibiting a similar pattern include “ignorance,” “knowledge,” “a question,” “an idea,” “a report,” and “a statement.” Sometimes, “on” is found instead of “about,” especially after a report.
A slightly different case is seen with a theory of/about. “Of” suggests a much more intricate theory than “about.” For example, a theory of gravity is a scientific theory attempting to explain every aspect, while a theory about gravity is more like a single general belief about it.
The noun “difficulty” uses “of” before the name of the difficulty (the difficulty of curing cancer) but “with” before something possessing it, e.g.:
(a) The difficulty with children is that they need supervision.
The same applies to a problem. However, “trouble” always takes “with,” and “advantage,” “benefit,” “pleasure,” and “value,” while combining with “of” in the same way as above, combine with something possessing them using “in,” usually after “there is” – e.g., there is an advantage in.
A different type of noun with a variable preposition is of the kind derived from a verb. Variability arises if the noun can express two different meanings, one an action and one not.
For example, the noun “receipt,” derived from “RECEIVE,” can mean either “receiving” or “something written to acknowledge a purchase.” With such nouns, it is usually found that the action meaning is followed by “of” (receipt of visitors), and the other meaning is followed by another preposition (a receipt for goods).
Slightly different is the action noun “an increase,” which shows what increases with a following “of” or “in,” regardless of whether or not an action is being expressed. The difference lies in the cause of the increase: “of” indicates an external agent, while “in” does not.
Thus, an increase of taxes is something brought about by an agency such as a government, while an increase in taxes is vague about the agency – taxes might even have increased by themselves. The former corresponds to “taxes are/were increased,” the latter to “taxes increase(d).”
The same contrast affects various synonyms and antonyms of “increase,” provided they have a related verb like “INCREASE” that can be used both with and without an object (see 4. Verbs that Don’t have to be Passive 1). They include “acceleration,” “expansion,” “improvement,” “intensification,” “cut,” “decrease,” “diminution,” and “reduction.”
A special use is found with “cost” and its opposite, “value.” If we wish to say what possesses a cost/value, the preposition is “of” (e.g., the cost of inflation). On the other hand, the sufferer of the cost needs “to” (the cost to the government).
This use of “to” is similar to that with indirect objects (Verbs with an Indirect Object). Finally, a word has to be said about “research,” which can be followed by “in,” “into,” or “on.” The first of these seems normally to show the broad subject area involved (e.g., research in biology).
The other two often seem interchangeable, although perhaps “into” shows a more precise object of research (e.g., research on primates/into primate intelligence). It is important to remember that the related verb “RESEARCH” is not followed by any preposition at all (Unnecessary Prepositions).
Verbs with a partner preposition are often referred to as “prepositional.” They should not be confused with “phrasal” verbs (Phrasal Verbs). Sometimes, their meaning changes if the preposition is dropped (Troublesome Prepositional Verbs). However, meaning changes are also linked with different prepositions. The following are noteworthy:
– AGREE with/on/to
– APPLY for/to
– ASK about/for
– CARE for/about
– FALL for/over
– FEEL for/like
– GET into/on/off/over
– GO into/
Poetry, as a legacy bestowed upon humanity, serves as the articulate expression of intense emotions and thoughts, fostering a connection between the individual and their surroundings.
This connection is often forged between a person and nature, the world, or the universe. Poetry functions as a medium to universalize and perpetuate thoughts, ideas, feelings, sensations, and internal experiences.
When examining a poem, the initial observation typically revolves around its structure. In essence, poems adhere to a specific FORM. Each poem differs significantly from another, with poets selecting a form that most effectively CONVEYS their intended message to fellow human beings.
Traditionally, poetry adhered to strict forms, and those who still adhere to these forms today follow a traditional style. However, contemporary poetry exhibits a strong inclination to deviate from tradition, adopting unorthodox, unconventional, or even unusual styles.
This genre is commonly referred to as FREE VERSE, frequently employed in modern times to offer a myriad of creative possibilities. Poets utilize free form to align the structure with the content and express the mood or sentiment of their work.
Once the form of a poem is recognized, attention often turns to its LINES, serving as the conveyors of the author’s thoughts and ideas. These lines, the building blocks of a poem, proceed from left to right, concluding precisely where the poet intends.
Consequently, some lines may have equal length, while others do not. Besides the length and initial word placement in each line, the PUNCTUATION at the end plays a pivotal role for the poet.
It serves as a tool to indicate a full stop, a gentle pause, a sudden break, or other nuances. Ultimately, poetry evokes sensations, moods, and images in the reader’s mind.
Lines in a poem are commonly grouped into sections akin to paragraphing, known as STANZAS. A stanza is the collective arrangement of lines, resembling a paragraph in prose.
Rhyme entails the SONIC mimicry, typically of end syllables in words. Two primary types of rhyme exist in poetry. The more familiar one is END RHYME, where words at the end of a given line rhyme.
The second type is INTERNAL RHYME, differing in that the rhyming occurs within a line rather than at the end. Although end rhyme is the more prevalent choice, the most captivating poetry often artfully combines various patterns and techniques, including both end and internal rhyme, to enhance the poetic creation. (Internal Rhyme):
It won’t be LONG before my SONG ends the day, And the FLOWERS near the TOWERS reach the sky.
This passage provides a comprehensive overview of various elements and devices in poetry, emphasizing their roles in creating patterns, rhythm, euphony, and the effective use of poetic devices. Let’s break down the key points:
Rhyme and Pattern:
Rhythm:
Euphony:
Alliteration: Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of consecutive words.
Repetition:
Onomatopoeia: Use of words imitating the sounds they represent.
Inversion: Changing the usual word order for poetic effect.
a) Simile
b) Metaphor
c) Personification
d) Hyperbole
e) Understatement
Imagery: Use of sensory language to stimulate the reader’s imagination.
Variety: Employing variety in line length, rhythm, rhyme, and distribution for effectiveness.
This passage provides a solid foundation for understanding the various elements and techniques involved in the creation of poetry, offering insights for both readers and aspiring poets.
Numerous types of poems exist, each offering distinct perspectives. Some depict the poet’s observations, others recall memories, and some convey sensory experiences.
However, there are poems designed specifically to narrate a story, known as NARRATIVE POEMS. Similar to traditional stories encountered in literature courses, a narrative poem comprises essential elements such as a setting, characters, conflict, a plot leading to a climax, and often a conclusion. The narrative poem’s subject matter can encompass a wide range of topics.
LYRIC poetry, also referred to as DESCRIPTIVE poetry, is an intimately expressive form of verse. Typically concise and melodic, it vividly conveys impressions, emotions, sensations, and personal viewpoints on experiences. Lyric or Descriptive poetry explores themes like nature, beauty, love, friendship, the joy of life, death, patriotism, and more.
Poetry’s remarkable versatility allows authors to shape and bend this expressive form to suit their intentions. Consequently, some poets choose HUMOR as the primary purpose for crafting a poem.
A LIMERICK is a distinctive and humorous poem comprising five lines. Often presenting nonsensical content, it follows a regular pattern. The first, second, and fifth lines are of equal length, each containing nine syllables and rhyming.
The shorter third and fourth lines, with five syllables, also rhyme and are slightly indented. Limericks are crafted for enjoyment and amusement.
Among the oldest narrative poems is the BALLAD, known for its length and emphasis on sharp conflicts and deep human emotions. While occasionally humorous, ballads typically address themes of love, honor, courage, and death.
Ballads involve common people, focus on physical courage and tragic love, lack detailed characterization, progress through dialogue, imply much of the story, and are presented in ballad stanzas.
FREE VERSE offers poets the freedom to mold the poem according to content, mood, and intentions.
Characterized by irregular line lengths, varying line indentations, rhythm use, and a lack of end rhyme and regular stanzas, free verse is a departure from traditional structures.
Capitalization, punctuation, and word distribution are at the discretion of the writer, making free verse a prevalent form in contemporary poetry.
This sound functions as a neutral vowel, representing the unstressed or weak form of other vowel sounds.
The prevalence of the schwa sound can be attributed to the characteristics of stress-timed languages like English, where stresses occur at regular intervals.
In connected speech, key words essential for message communication—nouns, main verbs, adjectives, and adverbs—are typically stressed, while grammatical words like auxiliary verbs, pronouns, articles, linkers, and prepositions are usually unstressed.
This unstressed state leads to a reduction in speed and volume, causing vowel sounds to lose their purity and often adopt the schwa. The first scenario involves stressing every word, while the second, more natural scenario features faster speech with reduced vowels. The same phenomenon occurs within individual words.
While stressed syllables maintain the integrity of the full vowel sound, unstressed syllables undergo weakening. For instance, in words like “support,” “banana,” “button,” “excellent,” “experiment,” “colour,” “sister,” and “picture,” the bolded letters can all be pronounced with a schwa, depending on the speaker’s accent.
The schwa is also utilized when a sound combines a vowel and a consonant, as seen in “water” /wɔːtə/, where the vowel is a shortened version of the /ɜː/ sound (vowel number eleven). Notably, the schwa is consistently found in unstressed syllables, never bearing stress regardless of its position.
Examples of the schwa sound occur in various positions: initial (e.g., agree, about, alone), middle (e.g., comfort, contain, column), and final (e.g., measure, Africa, sailor).
Adverbs of frequency are modifiers that alter or specify the meaning of a sentence by conveying how often or with what frequency something occurs. Essentially, adverbs of frequency serve as time-related adverbs.
These adverbs consistently indicate the regularity of an action, whether in specific or vague terms. Adverbs specifying definite frequency, such as weekly, daily, or yearly, pinpoint a particular time frame. On the other hand, adverbs expressing indefinite frequency, like sometimes, often, and rarely, lack precise temporal boundaries.
These straightforward guidelines for adverbs of frequency aid in their accurate usage: Employ adverbs of frequency to elucidate the frequency of events.
Adverbs of frequency are commonly utilized in conjunction with the present simple tense to denote routine or recurring activities. In sentences featuring only one verb, position the adverb of frequency in the middle, following the subject but preceding the verb.
Example: Tom never flies. He always takes the bus.
In sentences with multiple verbs, place the adverb of frequency before the main verb. For instance:
They have often visited Europe.
When using an adverb of frequency in a negative context or when constructing a question, position it before the main verb.
Examples: Do you usually get up so late?
Examples of Adverbs of Frequency
Each sentence showcases an instance of an adverb of frequency, with the examples italicized for easy identification.
The incubator turns each egg hourly.
We take a vacation at least once annually.
I usually shop for groceries on Saturday mornings.
He is often late for work.
We seldom see John.
My dentist told me I should floss twice daily.
Stress in language refers to the emphasis placed on specific syllables within words or on particular words in phrases or sentences.
In English, stressed syllables are characterized by being louder, longer, and having a higher pitch compared to non-stressed syllables. English is considered a stress-timed language, meaning that stressed syllables maintain a relatively steady tempo, while non-stressed syllables are shortened.
When examining stress in words, it is evident in examples such as “holiday,” “alone,” “admiration,” “confidential,” “degree,” “weaker,” “nervous,” and “parents,” where stressed syllables are denoted in bold.
Grammatical words, such as auxiliary verbs, prepositions, pronouns, and articles, typically do not receive stress in spoken language. Conversely, lexical words, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, must have at least one stressed syllable.
The placement of stress in words with multiple syllables is not governed by a strict rule, necessitating the memorization of stress patterns. One helpful approach is to consult a dictionary with International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) transcriptions, where the symbol ‘ before a syllable indicates stress. For instance, in the words “garden,” “meadow,” “mushroom,” “thermometer,” and “humidity,” the stressed syllables are highlighted.
Observing stress in verbs and their corresponding nouns reveals an interesting phenomenon. In many two-syllable verbs, the stress is on the second syllable, while the same word, when used as a noun, has stress on the first syllable. Examples include “to record” and “a record,” “to permit” and “a permit,” and “to address” and “an address.”
Intonation, encompassing the variation of pitch during speech, plays a crucial role in conveying meaning. In American English, statements and declarative questions exhibit rising intonation, whereas wh-questions and statements have falling intonation.
Yes or no questions may have a rising or falling intonation. Intonation also contributes to emphasizing specific words in a sentence, altering the meaning based on the speaker’s intention.
Consider the following sentences, spoken aloud with emphasis on the bolded word, and reflect on how the meaning is affected:
Rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhyme that comes at the end of each verse or line in poetry. In other words, it is the structure of end words of a verse or line that a poet needs to create when writing a poem.
Many poems are written in free verse style . Some other poems follow non-rhyming structures, paying attention only to the number of syllables. The Japanese genre of Haiku is a case in point. Thus, it shows that the poets write poems in a specific type of rhyme scheme or rhyming pattern. There are several types of rhyme schemes as given below.
There are a number of rhyme schemes used in poetry; some of the most popular of which include:
Alternate rhyme : It is also known as ABAB rhyme scheme, it rhymes as “ABAB CDCD EFEF GHGH.”
Ballade : It contains three stanzas with the rhyme scheme of “ABABBCBC” followed by “BCBC.”
Monorhyme : It is a poem in which every line uses the same rhyme scheme.
Couplet : It contains two-line stanzas with the “AA” rhyme
scheme, which often appears as “AA BB CC and DD…”
Triplet: It often repeats like a couplet, uses rhyme scheme of
“AAA.” Enclosed rhyme : It uses rhyme scheme of “ABBA”Terza rima rhyme scheme : It uses tercets, three lines stanzas. Its interlocking pattern on end words follows: ABA BCB CDC DED and so on.
Keats Odes rhyme scheme : In his famous odes, Keats has used a specific rhyme scheme, which is “ABABCDECDE.”
Limerick: A poem uses five lines with a rhyme scheme of “AABBA.”
Villanelle: A nineteen-line poem consisting of five tercets and a final quatrain . It uses a rhyme scheme of “A1bA2, abA1, abA2, abA1, abA2, abA1A2.”
The sun is shining bright
This is a lovely sight.
You are like a day of May
And I as worthless as hay.
This is poor Mr. Potter Walking a road with his daughter.
Sometimes, your unspoken word
Is more important than that heard.
Little boy wants to eat cakes
Whenever he from sleep awakes.
I saw a tree that to God doth say
I want the Lord to accept my pray.
I think I can never see
Something as free as a sea.
After so many days of drought down poured the rain
It took so long is if came from Spain.
The green garden lets its shade fall
Over the red old school hall.
There flows the river
That’s amongst the greatest giver.
Let us take a few examples of most widely used rhyme schemes in literature:
Example 1: Neither Out Far nor in Deep (By Robert Frost)
The people along the sand (A)
All turn and look one way. (B)
They turn their back on the land. (A)
They look at the sea all day. (B)
As long as it takes to pass (C)
A ship keeps raising its hull; (C)
The wetter ground like glass (D)
Reflects a standing gull. (D)
This is an ABAB pattern of rhyme scheme, in which each stanza applies this format. For instance, in the first stanza, “sand” rhymes with the word “land,” and “way” rhymes with the word “day.”
Example 2: Twinkle Twinkle Little Star (By Donald Barthelme)
Twinkle, twinkle, little star, (A)
How I wonder what you are. (A)
Up above the world so high, (B)
Like a diamond in the sky. (B)
The following example uses an AABB rhyme scheme. Here, the first line ends in the word “star,” which rhymes with the final word of the second line, “are.” Since both words rhyme with each other, they are signified with letter “A.”
Example 3: Divine Comedy (By Dante Alighieri)
As I drew nearer to the end of all desire, (A)
I brought my longing’s ardor to a final height, (B)
Just as I ought. My vision, becoming pure, (A)
Entered more and more the beam of that high light (B)
That shines on its own truth. From then, my seeing (C)
Became too large for speech, which fails at a sight… (B)
Dante has used terza rima tercet rhyming patterns (ABA, BCB, CDC …) in this poem, giving an impression of irresistible movement, as well as dynamism.
Example 4: A Monorhyme for the Shower (By Dick Davis)
Lifting her arms to soap her hair (A)
Her pretty breasts respond – and there (A)
The movement of that buoyant pair (A)
Is like a spell to make me swear… (A)
This poem presents a perfect example of monorhyme, in which you’ll notice that every line ends in a similar rhyme, “AAAA” like these words, “hair, there, pair, and swear.”
Example 5: Nature’s Way (By Heidi Campbell)
Upon a nice mid-spring day, A
Let’s take a look at Nature’s way. A
Breathe the scent of nice fresh air, B
Feel the breeze within your hair. B
The grass will poke between your toes, C
Smell the flowers with your nose. C
Clouds form shapes within the skies, D
And light will glisten from your eyes D
This extract from a poem by Heidi Campbell has a beautiful rhyme scheme AA, BB, CC and DD.
Example 6: A Poison Tree (By William Blake)
I was angry with my friend: A
I told my wrath, my wrath did end. A
I was angry with my foe: B
I told it not, my wrath did grow. B
And I watered it in fears C
Night and morning with my tears; C
And I sunned it with smiles, D
And with soft deceitful wiles. D
This extract from William Blake’s poem has an excellent rhyme scheme as AA, BB, CC, and DD.
Example 7: The One (By Crystal R. Adame)
The one who brought me down to earth, A
And held me every day. B
The one who gracefully gave me birth, A
And said, I love you in every way. B
The one who taught me everything, C
Like how to crawl and walk. D
The one who taught me how to sing C
After learning how to talk. D
Here, poet Crystal R. Adame makes dexterous use of rhyme scheme. The scheme runs like this: ABAB and CDCD.
Example 8: To A Terrific Dad (By David L. Helm)
To a dad who is terrific, A
To a dad who’s real neat. B
To a dad who makes the best of things, C
Even when they’re not so sweet! B
To a dad who’s growing older, D
To a dad who’s going gray. E
To a dad who just gets smarter, D
It would seem from day to day! E
These lines from the poem To a Terrific Dad have yet another kind of rhyme scheme, which is different from all of the preceding examples. The rhyme scheme of this poem is ABCBDEDE.
Rhyme scheme is an integral part of the constitution of a poem, which includes meter, length of phrase, and rhythm . In fact, rhyme scheme, like other writing tools, is used to create balance and relieve tension, manage flow, create rhythm, and highlight important ideas. Its basic function is to form units of sound and suggest units of sense. It also communicates the idea in a more effective way.
Sentence transformation: affirmative to negative
Change the following affirmative sentences into negatives.
In the simple present tense, we make negative forms by putting ‘not’ after ‘do’ or ‘ does’. Note that ‘do’ is used when the subject is a plural noun or pronoun.
The first person pronoun ‘I’ also takes the verb ‘do’. ‘Does’ is used when the subject is a singular noun or pronoun. In the simple past tense, we make negatives by putting ‘did not’ before the base form of the verb.
My sister lives with my parents.
I know the answer.
I want to leave now.
My mother works at a bank.
Supriya sings really well.
Martin gets along with his brother-in-law.
The boy killed the spider with his shoe.
She recognized him at once.
He apologized for his conduct.
She threw a tantrum when she was told that she wouldn’t be able to go.
Answers
My sister does not live with my parents.
I do not know the answer.
I do not want to leave now.
My mother does not work at a bank.
Supriya does not sing very well.
Martin does not get along with his brother-in-law.
The boy did not kill the spider with his shoe.
She did not recognize him at once.
He did not apologize for his conduct.
She did not throw a tantrum when she was told that she wouldn’t be able to go.
Modal verbs, also known as modal auxiliary verbs or modal auxiliaries, are unique verbs in English that exhibit irregular behavior. They differ from regular verbs like “work,” “play,” or “visit,” as they provide additional information about the function of the main verb that follows them. Modal verbs serve various communicative functions and possess distinctive characteristics:
List of modal verbs: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must. Additionally, verbs or expressions such as dare, ought to, had better, and need not can be considered modal auxiliaries.
Modal verbs serve to express various functions, including:
Must:
Can:
Could:
May:
Might:
Need not:
Lack of necessity / Absence of obligation: I need not buy tomatoes; there are plenty in the fridge.
Should/Ought to:
Note:
Modal verbs are always followed by an infinitive without “to,” also referred to as the bare infinitive. For example:
The act of composing a letter involves conveying information, emotions, thoughts, or viewpoints to an individual who is not physically present or resides at a distance.
A comprehensive letter should provide detailed information on the subject to elicit a similar response as if the content were conveyed verbally.
An informal letter, also known as a personal letter, is typically written to close relatives, friends, and loved ones.
Address of the writer and date: Proper punctuation is crucial, and the address should be positioned at the top right-hand corner of the page.
Example:
“`
36, Adebayo Street,
Abule – Egba,
Lagos.
24th May, 2017.
“`
– Greeting/Salutation: Commonly begins with “Dear” followed by the first name of the person being addressed, such as “Dear Tolu” or “Dear John,” emphasizing the cordial relationship between the writer and the recipient.
– Complimentary Close: “Yours sincerely” is the most appropriate closing, followed by the writer’s first name.
Example:
“`
Yours sincerely,
John.
“`
Adjectives: “ed” or “ing”? English features numerous pairs of adjectives ending in “ed” or –“ing”, which are derived from verbs. To prevent confusion between them, it’s crucial to remember that -ed adjectives describe how you feel, while “ing” adjectives convey what provokes that emotion. Consider the examples below:
I’m very confused by this film. – This film is very confusing.
Adjective or adverb? In English, most (though not all) adverbs have a distinct spelling compared to their corresponding adjectives. It is crucial to determine whether you need an adjective or an adverb in your sentences. Generally, adjectives describe nouns, while adverbs accompany verbs to indicate the manner of action. In the examples below, adjectives are marked in red, and adverbs are marked in blue:
Adverbs are also used to provide additional information about adjectives or other adverbs, as demonstrated in the following examples:
After certain verbs (e.g., be, become, seem, look, taste, smell, etc.), the adjective, not the adverb, is employed:
Introduction: Communication is achieved through writing. In this lesson, we will revisit both formal and informal letter writing.
A formal letter refers to a business, official, or job-related communication, such as requesting casual leave or applying for a job. The key features of a formal letter include:
8, Adeola Street,
Ile – Epo,
Oke – Ode,
Lagos.
22nd October, 2017.
“`
“`
Yours faithfully,
Signature and Name: Ayodele Oke
“`
The Informal Letter:
An informal letter, also known as a private letter, is addressed to friends, family, and acquaintances. Key features include:
“`
3, Bright Crescent,
Lagos Island,
Surulere,
Lagos.
13th August, 2017
“`
“`
Yours sincerely,
Peter
“`
Comprehension involves reading, understanding, and explaining a given passage. The purpose is to test the student’s understanding. Instructions typically include reading a passage and answering related questions. The provided passage is from Unit Four of the New Oxford English Subject for Junior Secondary School (Upper Basic 3 Education).
As we already know, there are forty-four speech sounds on English. While twenty of them is vowels, the remaining twenty four are consonants.
A consonant is produced with the flow if air from the lungs is in erupted somewhere in the ducal clarity (mouth). A consonant is therefore a speech sound which produced with the obstruction of airstream is. The obstruction could be ‘partial ‘or ‘total’,
The important thing about the production of a consonant, therefore, is that there is always a degree of obstruction of the airstream from the lungs. The degree of obstruction of air is one of the three important factors used in classifying the English consonants.\
These factors are usually considered in the classification of consonants. These are:
Place of articulation.
Manner of articulation.
State of glottis.
Here are the lists of consonant sound with examples.
/p/ as in pan,prefect,nap
/b/ as in bud, rubber, rubs.
/t/ as in tea, seat, heater.
/k/ as in come, marking, pack.
/d/ as in dip, hide, riddles.
/g/ as in get, target, rag.
/f/ as in fork, suffer, cough.
/v/ as in van, river, live.
/0/ as in anthem, think, both.
/∂ / as in this, father, breathes.
/s/ as in sip, racing, place.
/z/ as in Zink, razor, has.
/S/ as in ship, lashes, fish.
// as in genre, vision, garage.
/h/ as in hat, behave
/tS/ as in cheap, richer, teach.
/d/ as in joy, rejoice, page.
/l/ as in lock, follow, sell.
/r/ as in rag, borrow,______
/w/ as in win, rewind,______
/j/ as in yes, _______.
/m/ as in man, remain, him.
/n/ as in net, runner, rain.
/J/ as in singer, bang, ______
Adverbs of manner elucidate the manner in which an action takes place. For instance, one can walk or run at varying speeds, and the words employed to depict these different speeds, such as “quickly” or “slowly,” serve as prime examples of adverbs of manner.
They provide readers with deeper insights into the unfolding scene in a written narrative. Examining the following sentences will illustrate how these adverbs alter the overall meaning of the sentences in which they appear.
The boys ran. (No adverb of manner is present, leaving the speed of the boys’ running to the reader’s imagination.) The boys ran quickly. (The adverb of manner is “quickly,” signifying that the boys are in a hurry.)
The boys were tired, so they ran more slowly than before. (The adverb of manner is “slowly,” indicating that the boys are running but covering less ground than previously.)
Several rules should be kept in mind regarding adverbs of manner: Exercise caution not to place them between the object and the verb, as they typically work best after the sentence’s object or main verb.
If a preposition precedes the object, the adverb of manner can be positioned either before the preposition or after the sentence’s object.
Emphasize a point by positioning an adverb of manner before both the verb and object. Placing these adverbs at the beginning of a sentence grabs the reader’s attention.
The ensuing examples of adverbs of manner showcase how the same adverb can impart different meanings to sentences containing nearly identical sets of words.
In each example, the adverb of manner has been italicized for easy identification.
Argumentative essays aim to articulate a stance on a particular issue and provide multiple reasons, backed by evidence, to support that standpoint.
Topics for argumentative essays can be discovered in various places, whether in newspaper headlines or casual conversations at your local Starbucks. It is likely that you will encounter individuals attempting to persuade others to believe in their assertions regarding:
Question/Answer Format: Transform your topic idea into a question and use the answer as your thesis.
– Example: “Does divorce cause serious problems for children?”
Refute Objections: Address potential counterarguments in the introductory part of your thesis.
Example: “While some believe there’s no way to divorce-proof a marriage…”
Roadmap Provide a brief overview of the main points you will cover in your thesis.
Example: “Studies show that fewer divorces occur when couples carefully prepare for commitment…”
Introduction and Conclusion Strategies:
Introduction Ideas:
Conclusion Ideas:
Introduction:
Body:
Conclusion
Encourage the audience to adopt your perspective by utilizing the techniques of anticipating objections within the conclusion.
Definition
An idiom (also called idiomatic expression) is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning conventionally understood by native speakers.
This meaning is different from the literal meaning of the idiom individual elements. In other words, idioms don’t mean exactly what the words say. They have, however, hidden meaning.
Examples
“Kick the bucket”
“Spill the beans”
The meaning of these expressions is different from the literalmeaning or definition of the words of which they are made. Their meaning are however used figuratively. They mean respectively:
“to die ”
“to tell people secret information”
Idiomatic expressions are a type of informal English that have a meaning different from the meaning of the words in the expression.
Here’s an example of an idiomatic expression.
This idiom does not mean that you should stick your fingers in your mouth and grab a hold of your tongue.
It means that you shouldn’t talk. People “hold their tongues” when they are in situations where they want to talk, but it would be better if they didn’t. So, while their tongue is ready to do some talking, they “hold” it and don’t say anything.
Every language has idioms, and they can be difficult to learn if you’re not a native speaker of that language.
Meaning: Made very happy
Meaning: There was no competition
Meaning: Sad or depressed
Meaning: Very sick
Meaning: Not well
Meaning: Wake up and be happy!
Meaning: You were very close, but you did not make it.
Meaning: For a very long time
Meaning: Very hard rain
Meaning: Making me very annoyed
Meaning: Very easy
Meaning: A mild punishment
Meaning: It is extremely expensive.
Meaning: Just joking.
Meaning: I don’t understand.
Meaning: Be happy.
Meaning: Be patient.
Meaning: All of us are in the same position.
Meaning: Unpredictable
20.I will clean my room when pigs fly.
Meaning: Never.
Descriptive essays serve as a tool for writers to craft a vibrant portrayal of a person, place, or object. In contrast to narrative essays that derive meaning from personal stories, descriptive essays aim to unveil the essence of a subject through meticulous, sensory observations.
This genre harnesses the potency of language and engages all human senses to animate the subject for the reader.
The effectiveness of a descriptive essay is measured by whether readers feel as though they have genuinely encountered a person, visited a specific place, or held a particular object.
A proficient writer goes beyond mere recognition, fostering an emotional connection and a profound appreciation for the subject’s significance.
The process of crafting a descriptive essay involves five key steps. Recognizing that writing demands effort, professional writers, and students alike benefit from understanding and adhering to these proven steps. Here are tips tailored to each phase of the writing process:
In the initial phase, students should contemplate the subject they wish to describe and the reasons behind their choice.
Whether focusing on a significant person, a meaningful object, or a particular place, the topic need not be famous or unconventional. For instance, the subject could be a grandparent, a cherished toy, or a treehouse.
Reflecting on the qualities to be described, including physical characteristics, memories, feelings, and associated ideas, is crucial. Crafting an outline that arranges these details logically sets the stage for the subsequent phases.
During the drafting stage, following the outline is essential, with the primary goal being to immerse the reader in a rich experience of the subject.
The cardinal rule of descriptive writing is to show, not tell. Engage all the senses—sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste—to convey a comprehensive experience.
Descriptive and figurative language, along with concrete imagery, enhance the narrative. Examples such as similes and metaphors contribute to the vivid portrayal of the subject.
In the revision phase, students evaluate and refine their work to enhance its quality. Key considerations include ensuring the essay unfolds in a manner that allows readers to fully grasp the subject and avoiding paragraphs that confuse more than elucidate.
The choice of words and figurative language should invoke the senses, emotions, and meaning. Providing sufficient details for a complete mental image is crucial, and a connection between the description and its significance should be evident to readers throughout the essay.
During the editing stage, writers focus on proofreading for grammatical and mechanical errors while improving style and clarity. Clichés should be avoided, and an excessive use of adjectives and adverbs should be scrutinized.
Maintaining precision in detail is paramount, ensuring that the progression from general to specific facilitates the reader’s ability to construct a mental image.
For instance, it is advisable not to describe the glossy coat of fur before establishing that the essay centers on a dog.
Adverbs of Reasons = Adverbs of Cause:
These adverbs express the reason for or a purpose of an action.
Examples:
Krishna was hence neglected by the teachers.
She thus opened the door applying little visible force.
He, therefore, does not want to talk to me.
The teacher is ill and therefore is unable to come to school.
A conjunction, a vital component of speech, serves to link words, phrases, or clauses within a sentence, signifying a relationship between the connected elements.
Conjunctions operate in a coordinating, subordinating, or correlative capacity, playing a crucial role in the construction and amalgamation of sentences. These words facilitate the joining of phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Examples:
This type primarily joins words or phrases, including AND, BUT, OR, NOR, SO, YET, FOR, ALSO, EITHER–OR, NEITHER–NOR.
Examples:
These conjunctions, such as BOTH–AND, NEITHER–NOR, NOT ONLY–BUT ALSO, EITHER–OR, connect complementary words, phrases, clauses, or sentences in pairs.
Examples:
Subordinating conjunctions, also known as subordinators (e.g. AFTER, ALTHOUGH, UNLESS, AS, BECAUSE, BEFORE, WHEN, WHICH, PROVIDED, WHENEVER, IF, UNTIL, IN CASE), link the main clause with a subordinate clause, creating dependency.
Examples:
Conjunctions are indispensable for crafting articulate and cohesive sentences, establishing connections between ideas, and conveying contrast, addition, cause and effect, condition, time, and other relationships within or between sentences.
An article constitutes a comprehensive written piece addressing a matter of public concern, typically presenting the perspectives or opinions of its authors on a specific issue or topic.
The process of article writing involves the creation of written content for diverse purposes, such as newspapers, magazines, blogs, websites, or other publications.
This entails the development of informative, captivating, and well-organized pieces to convey information or articulate opinions on a given subject.
Article composition generally adheres to a specific format and style, contingent on the target audience and the platform of publication.
The primary objective of article writing is to furnish readers with valuable information, entertain them, or influence them to take a specific action.
When crafting an article, it is imperative to contemplate the intended audience and tailor the content accordingly.
This entails comprehending their interests, level of knowledge, and the tone that resonates with them. Moreover, articles should be meticulously researched, ensuring factual accuracy and logical organization.
Several essential elements merit consideration in article writing:
Remember, article writing is a skill that improves with practice. The more one writes, the more adept they become at generating engaging and impactful content.
CONTENT:
Tailor your content to the assigned topic, ensuring comprehensive coverage to secure a high grade. Relevance to the question is paramount.
ORGANIZATION:
Distinguish article writing from a letter to the editor; avoid the latter’s format. Clearly state the article’s title at the beginning. Provide an insightful introduction, followed by logically ordered points. Conclude by including your name and class.
EXPRESSION:
Maintain a formal language tone suitable for an article. When addressing topics requiring expository prose, prioritize clarity and simplicity. Steer clear of slang, and choose your vocabulary carefully for maximum impact.
PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES:
Understand the role of prefixes and suffixes, essential components for modifying word meanings and creating new terms.
PREFIXES:
SUFFIXES:
Understanding these affixes aids in deciphering unfamiliar words, enriching vocabulary, and enhancing reading comprehension. Keep in mind that not all words incorporate prefixes or suffixes, and context is pivotal in determining their precise interpretation.
The primary distinction between the /z/ and /s/ consonants lies in their voicing contrast.
Voicing:
Articulation:
Sound Examples:
Minimal Pair:
It’s crucial to acknowledge that pronunciation may vary due to factors such as accent, dialect, and individual speech patterns. The descriptions are based on a general understanding of /z/ and /s/ sounds in English.
– /Z/ in “tens” versus /S/ in “tense”
– /Z/ in “fens” versus /S/ in “fence”
– /Z/ in “please” versus /S/ in “police”
– /Z/ in “seize” versus /S/ in “cease”
– /Z/ in “phase” versus /S/ in “face”
– /Z/ in “knees” versus /S/ in “niece”
– /Z/ in “trays” versus /S/ in “trace”
– /Z/ in “grows” versus /S/ in “gross”
– /Z/ in “dens” versus /S/ in “dense”
– /Z/ in “cause” versus /S/ in “course”
– /Z/ in “graze” versus /S/ in “grace”
– /Z/ in “fears” versus /S/ in “fierce”
– /Z/ in “zeal” versus /S/ in “seal”
A question tag is a specific type of inquiry often appended to the end of a statement, serving the purpose of transforming the statement into a question. Frequently employed in conversation, the question tag functions to both assert a statement and promptly solicit confirmation from the listener.
Question tags, concise phrases added at the conclusion of a sentence, facilitate the conversion of declarative statements into questions, prompting the listener to validate or agree with the statement.
These tags are instrumental in fostering engagement in conversation and verifying the accuracy of the speaker’s assumptions or assertions. Exemplifying question tags include:
In these instances, the question tags are “isn’t it,” “haven’t you,” “didn’t she,” “do they,” “can’t we,” “isn’t he,” “do you,” and “shall we.” The initial part of each sentence constitutes a statement, and the addition of the question tag transforms it into an inquiry or seeks affirmation from the listener.
The vowel contrast between /ᴧ/ and /a:/ is a distinction that exists in certain languages, including English. These symbols represent specific vowel sounds in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which is a system used to transcribe and represent the sounds of human language.
/ᴧ/ represents a mid-central vowel sound, sometimes referred to as a “schwa” sound. It is the vowel sound found in unstressed syllables of many English words, such as the first syllable in “about” or the second syllable in “banana.”
/a:/ represents an open-back vowel sound. It is commonly found in English words like “car,” “park,” or “father.”
The main difference between these two vowel sounds is their position in the mouth. /ᴧ/ is a more centralized sound, meaning that the tongue is positioned in the middle of the mouth without touching the roof or the sides. /a:/, on the other hand, is a more open sound, where the tongue is positioned further back in the mouth, creating a wider opening.
It’s important to note that the actual pronunciation of these vowel sounds can vary between different English dialects and accents.
The vowel system of English is quite complex and varies across regions, so there might be slight differences in the way these sounds are realized depending on the speaker or the specific context.
/ᴧ/ /a:/
Come calm
Cut cart
Hut heart
Dunce dance
Must mast
Sum psalm
Roughed raft
The act of letter writing involves conveying information, feelings, ideas, or opinions to someone who is absent or at a distance. A well-constructed letter should provide comprehensive details on the subject to elicit a similar response as if the message were spoken.
Various types of letters include informal, semi-formal, and formal letters.
An informal letter, also known as a personal letter, is typically addressed to close relatives, friends, or loved ones.
Address of the writer and date: Properly punctuated and placed on the top right-hand corner of the page.
Example:
36, Brown Street,
Satellite Town,
Lagos.
24th May, 2015.
Greeting/salutation: Typically begins with “Dear” followed by the first name of the recipient (e.g., Dear Tolu, Dear John), reflecting the cordial relationship between the writer and the receiver.
Complimentary close: ‘Yours sincerely’ is the most suitable, followed by the writer’s first name.
Example:
Yours sincerely,
Dupe.
Hey [Friend’s Name],
I trust this letter finds you in good spirits! It’s been a while since our last conversation, and I felt it was time to drop you a few lines to check-in.
To begin, life has been eventful on my end. Since we last met, I’ve landed that job I mentioned before! Can you believe it? The journey has been incredible, and I’m thrilled to work in a field I’m passionate about. It’s challenging, but I’m learning daily, and the team is fantastic.
Regarding work, I’ve achieved a better work-life balance. Recognizing the importance of breaks, I’ve taken up hobbies like painting, discovering a hidden talent.
On the social front, I’ve met fantastic people and made new friends, organizing game nights and movie marathons. It’s refreshing to share laughter with like-minded individuals.
Enough about me—share your updates! How are things on your side? Remember that project you were excited about? I’m eager to hear the details!
Before I forget, exciting news—I’m planning a trip to [Destination] next month. I’d love for you to join me. Let me know if you’re up for it, and we can plan the adventure!
Closing, know you’re on my mind, and I cherish our friendship. Can’t wait to catch up properly.
Take care, stay awesome, and keep rocking!
Loads of love and warm hugs,
[Your Name]
Nasal sounds, such as /m/, /n/, and /ɳ/, are produced when air flows through the nasal cavity while the soft palate (velum) is lowered, allowing air to pass through both the oral and nasal passages. Here’s a breakdown of each sound:
This sound is a bilabial nasal consonant, meaning it is produced by closing both lips. The sound is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during its production. To make the /m/ sound, you close your lips and let the air flow out through your nose. Examples of words with the /m/ sound include “mama,” “more,” and “time.”
This sound is an alveolar nasal consonant, produced by touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge (the area just behind the upper front teeth). Like /m/, /n/ is a voiced sound. To produce the /n/ sound, the airflow is directed through the nasal passage while the tip of the tongue is in contact with the alveolar ridge. Words like “nice,” “not,” and “sun” contain the /n/ sound.
This sound is a retroflex nasal consonant, which means the tongue curls back or retroflexes during its production. It is not commonly found in English, but it exists in some languages. To make the /ɳ/ sound, the tip of the tongue is curled back and touches the roof of the mouth towards the back. There are no common English words that begin with /ɳ/, but it can occur in certain positions within words in some dialects.
These nasal sounds are an integral part of many languages, and their specific pronunciation can vary slightly depending on the language and dialect.
These sounds are described as nasals because air flows out through the nose as they are produced. They are peculiar in the sense that their sounds come out entirely through the nasal cavity.
/m/ /n/ /ɳ/
Man neat sing
Mock new ring
Some snow wrong
Bossom annoy long
Summer can hanging
Mess cleaner shrunk
The pronoun is a word used in place of a noun to avoid repetition and monotony in speech or writing. In replacing the noun, however, the pronoun must reflect the gender and number of the noun.
Pronouns replace nouns perfectly and perform the roles the nouns replace and perform.
This refers to the person or thing that is involved in the action either as a subject or object. The pronouns also have singular and plural forms while they also reflect the first person, second person and third person.
Singular: Referring to oneself, we use “I” or “me.”
Example: “I am going to the store.”
Plural: When including others, the pronouns shift to “we” or “us.”
Example: “We are going to the store.”
Singular: When addressing an individual, the pronoun is “you.”
Example: “You are invited to the party.”
Plural: It remains “you,” whether addressing one person or a group.
Example: “You are all invited to the party.”
Singular: Referring to someone or something, we use “he,” “she,” or “it.”
Examples:
Objective Form: When the pronoun functions as an object, we use “him,” “her,” or “it.”
Examples:
Plural: When referring to more than one person or thing, the pronoun becomes “they.”
Examples:
Objective Form: When serving as an object, it becomes “they.”
Examples:
Understanding the nuances of singular and plural pronouns is crucial for effective communication, ensuring clarity and precision in expressing thoughts and ideas.
Example: She scolded them
I kicked him
They surprise me with their conduct.
These show possession or ownership of items. These pronouns also have two forms. One form functions as adjectives and are known as pronominal adjective while the other functions as pronouns and are known as such.
Pronoun and Adjective Agreement:
1st Person:
2nd Person:
3rd Person:
In language, the agreement between pronouns and adjectives is crucial for effective communication. It ensures that the words used to refer to individuals or groups align grammatically. Let’s delve into each category:
Pronoun “MINE”: Used to denote possession, indicating that something belongs to the speaker.
Adjective “MY”: Describes ownership or relationship, indicating possession by the speaker.
Pronoun/Adjective “OURS / OUR”: Denotes collective possession or belonging, indicating something shared within a group.
Pronoun “YUORS”: It seems there may be a typographical error; the correct form is “YOURS.” This pronoun signifies possession by the person being addressed.
Adjective “YOUR”: Describes ownership or relationship, indicating possession by the person being addressed.
Pronoun/Adjective “YOURS / YOUR”: Denotes collective possession or belonging, indicating something shared within the group being addressed.
Pronoun “HIS/HERS”: Indicates possession by a third person, either him or her.
Adjective “HIS/HER/ITS”: Describes ownership or relationship, indicating possession by a third person or thing.
Pronoun/Adjective “THEIRS”: Denotes collective possession or belonging, indicating something shared within a group that includes a third person or thing.
Understanding and using these pronouns and adjectives correctly contribute to clear and precise communication, ensuring that the relationships and ownership they convey are accurately conveyed in written and spoken language.
Example: This pen is mine (pronoun ‘mine’ is subject complement)
This is my pen (adjective ‘my’ modifies the noun ‘pen’).
The symbols /ӕ/ and /ӡ:/ represent specific vowel and consonant sounds in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), respectively.
Examples of words with the /ӕ/ sound:
Examples of words with the /ӡ:/ sound:
It’s important to note that the pronunciation of sounds may vary depending on dialect and accent. The examples given here are based on a standard English accent, but there can be regional variations.
/ӡ:/ /ӕ/ BIRD BAD SHIRT SAT SEACRCH CASH STERN STAND TURN TALL EVALUATION: Write out 10 words each for the following sounds /ӕ/ and /ӡ:/ ASSIGNMENT: TRASCRIBE TEN WORDS OF YOUR CHOICE AND IDENTIFY THESE TWO PHONETIC SYMBOLS /ӕ/ and /ӡ:/
The schwa sound, represented by the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbol /ә/, is commonly known as the mid-central vowel sound.
It is prevalent in various languages, including English, where it is considered a reduced vowel and holds the distinction of being the most frequently occurring vowel sound.
Typically found in unstressed syllables, the schwa sound manifests in words such as “about,” “ago,” “sofa,” “banana,” and others. Its pronunciation, known for its relaxed and neutral quality, may exhibit variations influenced by regional accents and contextual factors.
A distinctive feature of the schwa sound is its inclination to appear in weak syllables, encompassing unstressed syllables and function words like articles, prepositions, and pronouns. This particular vowel sound contributes to the simplification and reduction of pronunciation in less emphasized syllables during connected speech.
It is noteworthy that the schwa sound can be represented by diverse vowel letters or combinations, such as “a” in “about,” “e” in “taken,” “o” in “lemon,” or unstressed “i” in “pencil.”
It’s essential to acknowledge that vowel pronunciation can exhibit variations based on dialects and accents, leading to nuanced realizations of the schwa sound depending on the speaker’s native language or regional speech patterns.
This neutral vowel, employed to signify the weak form of other vowel sounds, is also utilized when a sound constitutes a combination of a vowel and a consonant, as exemplified by “water” (/wᴐ:tӘ/).
Functioning as a condensed version of the /ӡ:/ sound (vowel number eleven), this vowel consistently appears in unstressed syllables, devoid of stress irrespective of its position within a word.
Examples illustrating the common spelling of the /Ә/ sound include its occurrence in initial positions (e.g., “agree,” “about,” “alone”), middle positions (e.g., “comfort,” “contain,” “column”), and final positions (e.g., “measure,” “Africa,” “sailor”).
The vowels /u/ and /u:/ are both phonetic sounds that exist in various languages, including English. Let’s take a closer look at each of them:
/u/
/u:/
It’s important to note that the specific pronunciation of these vowels can vary depending on regional accents and dialects. The examples given here are general representations of these sounds in standard English.
/u/ /u:/
Look luke
Full fool
Pull pool
Could cooed
Wood wooed
Should shooed
Bull blue
A pronoun serves as a substitute for a noun, preventing redundancy and monotony in speech or writing. However, when replacing the noun, the pronoun must accurately convey the gender and number of the original noun.
Two distinct types of pronouns employed in English are reflexive and relative pronouns.
Reflexive pronouns come into play when the subject and the object of a sentence refer to the same person or thing. They conclude with “-self” for singular forms and “-selves” for plural forms. The following are the reflexive pronouns in English:
Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Examples:
Reflexive pronouns serve to underscore the subject and signify that the action is directed towards the subject itself.
Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, furnishing additional information about a noun or pronoun in the main clause. They establish a connection between the main clause and the relative clause. The relative pronouns in English include who, whom, whose, which, and that:
Examples:
Relative pronouns contribute additional details about a specific noun or pronoun in the sentence. It is crucial to recognize that while reflexive pronouns reference the subject of the sentence, relative pronouns introduce supplementary information and link clauses together.
Pronouns seamlessly replace nouns, assuming the roles and functions of the nouns they replace.
These pronouns reflect the sentence’s subject and emphasize it, featuring ‘self’ for singular and ‘selves’ for plural forms.
Examples:
Relative pronouns describe or modify an antecedent noun and introduce subordinate clauses to the main clause. These pronouns include who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, and how.
Examples:
Synonyms are words that are similar or nearly the same in meaning. For example, killing is a deliberate act that causes somebody/something to die. It may mean murder, assassination, slaying, suffocation, strangulation, hanging, manslaughter, bloodshed, butchery, taking life, or destruction.
However, a closer look at each word shows a form or manner of causing death that is different from the others. This example is to show that no two words mean exactly the same thing in the English language. Each word has its own peculiar shade of meaning although it can be used in some situations to replace another word.
Look at the context or environment in which a word is used by relating the word to others in the sentence and in the options given. i.e. try to interconnect the word with the surrounding elements.
Apply your knowledge of word – formation to unravel the meaning of some of the given words.
WORDS SYNONYMS
BLUDER MISTAKE, ERROR
BEAUTIFUL HANDSOME, PRETTY
CHANGE ALTER
BATTLE WAR, FIGHT
BANISH EXILE
CONTENTMENT SATISFACTION
CONTAGIOUS INFECTIOUS
DOUBT SUSPECT
ASTONOINISHMENT WONDER, SURPRISE
DESIRE WAIT, WISH, NEED, YEARN
GRATEFUL THANKSFUL
ILLEGAL UNLAWFUL
The symbols /ᴐ:/ and /ᴐ/ represent vowel sounds in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Let’s take a closer look at each of these sounds:
It’s important to note that the specific pronunciation of these vowels may vary depending on the language or dialect being spoken. The examples provided are general approximations to help convey the idea of the sounds, but actual pronunciation may differ based on individual variations and regional accents.
/ᴐ:/ /ᴐ/
Cork cock
Cord cod
Forks fox
Nought knot
Naught knoffy
Odd awed
Port pot
Shorn shone
Nought not
Short shot
Sport spot
Taught tot
Dawn don
Demonstrative pronouns serve the purpose of indicating or referencing particular individuals, items, or locations within a sentence.
They convey the relative spatial or temporal distance between the speaker and the subject of reference. In English, there exist four demonstrative pronouns: “this,” “that,” “these,” and “those.”
“This” denotes a singular object or person in close proximity to the speaker. For instance:
“That” is employed when referring to a singular object or person situated farther away from the speaker. For example:
“These” is utilized to indicate multiple objects or people near the speaker. For instance:
“Those” is used when referencing multiple objects or people at a distance from the speaker. For example:
Demonstrative pronouns can also function as determiners when introducing a noun phrase. For instance:
It is essential to note that the specific application of demonstrative pronouns may vary depending on the context and the perspective of the speaker.
These pronouns, namely THIS, THAT, THESE, and THOSE, are employed to highlight specific individuals, places, or objects.
‘THIS’ and ‘THAT’ are employed for singular entities, while ‘THESE’ and ‘THOSE’ are used for plural entities. ‘THIS’ and ‘THESE’ are associated with objects in proximity, whereas ‘THAT’ and ‘THOSE’ are linked to objects at a distance.
Example:
Acadlly Exams
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