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Igbo-Ukwu Art holds significance due to three archaeological sites where excavations have revealed bronze artifacts from an advanced metal-working culture, likely dating to the ninth or tenth century—centuries ahead of other known bronzes in the region.
The initial site, Igbo Isaiah, discovered in 1938 by local villager Isaiah Anozie, yielded five bronze artifacts, now housed in the British Museum. These include a small staff, a ram’s head, a large manilla, a intricately designed crescent-shaped vessel, and a tribal chief’s head pendant with tattoo marks.
In 1959, formal excavations by archaeologist Thurstan Shaw, at the Nigerian government’s request, uncovered two additional sites—Igbo Richard and Igbo Jonah. Artifacts from these sites include jewelry, ceramics, a adorned corpse, and various bronze, copper, and iron objects, suggesting a long-distance trading system extending to Egypt.
Radiocarbon dating places the sites around the tenth century or earlier, making Igbo-Ukwu the earliest-known example of bronze casting in the region, preceding the more well-known Ife bronzes. Associated with the Nri-Igbo, the three sites include Igbo Isaiah (a shrine), Igbo Richard (a burial chamber), and Igbo Jonah (a cache).
The art from eastern Nigeria comprises objects made from bronze, terracotta, beads, and ivory, believed to date around 1200 B.P. (800 A.D.). Discovered in burial chambers, shrines, and storage areas, these objects showcase sophisticated bronze casting techniques. They encompass bronze pendants, bowls, shells, and a pendant representing a scarified human head—one of the rare human representations at Igbo-Ukwu.
Notably, a 9th-century bronze bowl, resembling a large globular gourd, features raised horizontal and vertical loops in bands on the outside. Described as one of the most sophisticated Igbo-Ukwu bronzes, it is a water vessel resting on a stand encased by ropework.
A musical function delineates the specific contribution of a musical element to the construction of a broader musical entity.
This concept is closely linked to the notion of expectation—given a particular element within a specific context, what subsequent element(s) is/are anticipated? Similarly, how does a given element either fulfill or deviate from the expectations established by its predecessors?
Typically, a musical function possesses two defining characteristics: the traits of musical elements commonly associated with that function (such as the prevalent notes in a chord) and the types of elements (or functions) that typically precede or follow it in a sequence of musical elements.
It’s important to note that this is contingent upon the established patterns of a particular musical style. Various music genres may exhibit diverse functions or behaviors for identical functions, highlighting the inseparable connection between the study of function and the study of style.
In Western art and popular music, two musical attributes frequently scrutinized for their functional properties are harmony and form.
An exploration of both harmonic and formal functions leads to an understanding of harmonic and formal syntax: the standards or principles governing the meaningful and stylistically appropriate combinations of musical elements.
Delving into harmony or form is not merely about correctly labeling chords, phrases, and modules; it involves interpreting the roles these elements play within the larger context in which they exist.
While fluency in identifying (and labeling) individual musical elements is a foundational step, it represents only the commencement of a more extensive and captivating process of analysis.
Engaging in this analytical work is what fosters a genuine comprehension of the analyzed pieces of music and the styles they embody.
Traditionally, an art exhibition serves as the space where art objects, in the broadest sense, engage with an audience. Unless explicitly declared as a “permanent exhibition,” it is generally understood to be a temporary display.
In American English, these events may be referred to as an “exhibit,” “exposition” (adopting the French term), or simply a “show.” In UK English, the terms used are consistently “exhibitions” or “shows,” with individual items within them termed “exhibits.”
Such exhibitions may showcase various art forms, including pictures, drawings, video, sound, installations, performances, interactive art, new media art, or sculptures by individual artists, artist groups, or specific art collections.
The display venues range from museums, art halls, and art clubs to private art galleries or unconventional spaces like coffeehouses.
Notably, some exhibitions involve works available for purchase, typically seen in private art galleries, while others do not. Events may be organized around specific occasions such as birthdays, anniversaries, or commemorations.
Art exhibitions come in different forms, notably commercial and non-commercial. Commercial exhibitions, often termed art fairs, showcase works by artists or art dealers, typically involving a participation fee. Vanity galleries charge artists for space usage.
Temporary museum exhibitions draw from the museum’s collection, supplemented by loans, without items being offered for sale. Commercial gallery exhibitions may comprise items for sale, and visitors usually pay an additional fee to enter a museum exhibition but not a commercial gallery.
Exhibition types include retrospectives, solo shows, group exhibitions, and themed shows. Biennales, large exhibitions held every two years, aim to assemble the best international art.
Exhibitions of new or recent art can be juried, invitational, or open. In a juried exhibition, a judge selects artworks for display, often awarding prizes. Invitational exhibitions, like the Whitney Biennial, feature artists invited by the show’s organizer. Open or “non-juried” exhibitions, such as the Kyoto Triennial, accept artworks from anyone.
Library and archival exhibitions display two main types of objects: bound materials (books and pamphlets) and unbound materials (manuscripts, cards, drawings). Proper display conditions are crucial to minimize physical damage.
Unbound materials are securely attached to mounts, avoiding direct contact with metal fasteners or pins. Frames should provide adequate support, and objects may be encapsulated in polyester film. Matting, glazing, and backing layers protect framed items.
Bound materials are typically displayed closed or lying horizontally, with precautions taken to reduce strain on bindings.
Given the special interest in exhibited items, security measures are essential to prevent theft or vandalism. Exhibition cases should be securely locked and may be glazed with materials hindering penetration.
Regular patrols, a 24-hour security presence, and intruder alarms enhance the exhibition’s protection.
Musical composition encompasses various aspects, referring to an original creation, be it a song or instrumental piece, the structure of the music, or the process of crafting a new musical work.
In classical music, those who craft new compositions are labeled composers, while in popular and traditional music, the term songwriters is commonly used. Songwriters, in this context, include lyricists responsible for crafting the words of a song.
The act or practice of creating music, termed “composition,” varies across cultures and musical genres.
In Western classical music, composition involves creating music notation, often in the form of a score, which can then be performed by the composer or other musicians. Contrastingly, popular music and traditional songwriting may entail outlining the melody, lyrics, and chord progression in a lead sheet.
In classical music, the orchestration, involving the selection of instruments for a large ensemble like an orchestra, is typically done by the composer. However, in musical theatre and pop music, arrangers may be hired for orchestration.
Some songwriters, particularly in pop and traditional music, may compose without written notation, relying on memory to play, sing, or record their compositions. Jazz and popular music accord significance to sound recordings as classical music does to written scores.
While musical compositions often have a single author and employ musical notation, there are exceptions. Collaborative efforts may lead to multiple composers, as seen in bands creating songs together or in musical theatre where different individuals handle melodies, lyrics, and orchestration.
Additionally, music can incorporate various elements, such as words, images, and, more recently, computer programs guiding the creation of musical sounds.
Diverse examples exist, ranging from avant-garde graphic notation to text compositions like Karlheinz Stockhausen’s Aus den sieben Tagen, as well as computer-generated music. Aleatoric music, characterized by randomness and chance, is exemplified by wind chimes in a breeze and associated with composers like John Cage and Morton Feldman.
The study of composition, historically centered on Western classical music, has broadened to encompass popular music, traditional songs, instrumental pieces, and improvised works.
The terminology used in classical music distinguishes between compositions in musical notation and live acoustic events.
With the advent of sound recording, music can exist as both notation and recording, and performances can involve memory, written notation, or a combination of both.
Compositions feature a wide array of musical elements, varying across genres and cultures. While popular music often incorporates electric and electronic instruments extensively, contemporary classical music also embraces these instruments, albeit to a lesser extent.
The Baroque era relied solely on acoustic and mechanical instruments, whereas a modern pop band might utilize electric guitars, synthesizers, and electronic drums.
One approach to music composition involves initiating the process by employing a chord progression. Numerous standard chord progressions are prevalent in music, such as ii-V7-I (in the key of C major, comprising D minor, G7, and C major) and I-vi-ii-V7 (in the key of C major, consisting of C major, A minor, D minor, and G7).
Songwriters can opt for these established progressions or modify them to achieve distinct effects. For instance, the inclusion of secondary dominant and dominant seventh chords can transform ii-V-I (in the key of C major, shifting from D minor–G major–C major) into V7/ii–V7/–V7–I (in the key of C major, transitioning through A7–D7–G7–C major).
Chord selection can also convey the emotional tone of a song. Choosing a minor key with predominantly major chords (III, VI, VII) may evoke a “hopeful” atmosphere. Conversely, for a “darker” mood, a composer might utilize unusual chords, such as transitioning from I-♭II (in C major, comprising C major and D♭ major; the use of D♭, not a note in C major, creates a dramatic effect).
Another technique for dramatic impact in chord progressions involves introducing modulation to a new key, such as modulating to a closely related key like G major.
While modulating to closely related keys has been a practice since the 1700s, it adds drama without significantly altering emotional effects. Conversely, modulating to a non-related key, like shifting from C major to A♭ major or G♭ major, can create a more pronounced emotional impact.
Following the selection of a chord sequence, additional elements are incorporated into the composition. In many genres, a lead melody line holds paramount importance, supported by one or more harmony lines.
The bassline contributes to the piece’s identity, and popular music often follows this structure, where a chosen series of chords defines each section of the song (e.g., verse, chorus). The melody line is often influenced by the writer’s chosen lyrics and may vary across verses.
Another method of music composition involves commencing with the creation of a melody, melodic theme, or group of melodies. Once these melodic elements are established, the composer can then introduce suitable chords to complement the melody.
The same melody can be paired with various chord progressions. For instance, a song in the key of C major with a melody starting on a sustained “G” note could be supported by a tonic chord (C major), a dominant chord (G major), or a mediant chord (E minor).
In a jazz-style composition, the sustained “G” note could be paired with a secondary dominant chord (e.g., an A7 chord, with “G” serving as the dominant seventh resolving to a D minor chord) or treated as an “extension” to an existing chord (e.g., supporting the “G” note with an F Major chord, making it the added ninth of the chord).
With advancements in technology in the 20th and 21st centuries, novel methods of music composition have emerged. One such method involves utilizing computer algorithms within samplers to directly convert speech phonetics into digital sound.
EEG headsets have also been employed to create music by interpreting the brainwaves of musicians. This approach was applied in Project Mindtunes, a collaboration between disabled musicians and DJ Fresh, as well as by artists Lisa Park and Masaki Batoh.
Hannah Arendt, in her renowned article “Power and the Space of Appearance,” suggests that our true humanity is realized when we present ourselves to one another; otherwise, we remain mere individuals. A community, devoid of connections among its members, is not a genuine community but rather a human-inhabited jungle lacking the essence of human beings.
The concept of community extends beyond a mere geographical location where people coexist. Three fundamental elements define a community: firstly, the acknowledgment of common interests and challenges, leading to collaborative decision-making or problem-solving; secondly, a shared locality or territory connecting people with commonalities; and thirdly, the local society encompassing interconnected associations and networks, collectively referred to as “Social Capital” by Robert Putnam.
Theater for Development (TfD) involves live performances utilized as a tool for international development. It encompasses various activities, such as spoken-word drama, music productions, dance performances, and participatory techniques. TfD evolves from less interactive to more dialogical forms, empowering communities to voice and solve their own problems.
Kabaso Sydney defines TfD as modes of theatre aiming to disseminate messages and raise awareness about social and political situations. Popular Theatre, as described by Penina Mlama, empowers people to actively participate in the development process by expressing their views and improving their conditions.
TfD can be participatory, encouraging improvisation and audience participation, or fully scripted with the audience as observers. “Theatre of the Oppressed,” created by Augusto Boal, is a form of community-based theatre.
As a qualitative evaluation tool, TfD has been used since the 1970s for purposes like awareness creation, social mobilization, education, and problem-solving in community development.
It involves live performances but also encompasses the entire process leading to these performances. In TfD, audience members are viewed not as spectators but as “spect-actors” who contribute significantly to the learning process.
Between 2005 and 2006, Educare Trust, Nigeria, collaborated with Gendev Consult and Family Counseling Centre to experiment with TfD as a qualitative evaluation tool for a community development project addressing HIV/AIDS in Oyo State.
This initiative marked a shift from the conventional roles of TfD, involving the audience as active contributors to the learning process. The choice of collaborating organizations was strategic, considering their expertise and relevance to the project.
Instrumentation in composition involves the adaptation of a musical piece for various ensembles, a process known as arranging or orchestrating. This task may be carried out by the composer or a separate arranger, guided by the core composition of the original work.
Numerous factors influence the creation of multiple arrangements for a composition, such as the target audience, musical genre, performance considerations (live or recorded), available musicians and instruments, commercial objectives, and economic constraints.
Based on these considerations, composers, orchestrators, and arrangers must make decisions regarding the instrumentation of the original piece.
In the contemporary era, composers have the flexibility to compose for diverse instrument combinations, ranging from traditional orchestral elements like strings, winds, and brass to electronic instruments such as synthesizers.
Various group settings include full orchestras, concert bands with larger and more diverse instrument sections, and chamber groups with a limited number of instruments. Additionally, composers may opt for solo compositions, whether unaccompanied or supported by other instruments.
Composers are not confined to writing solely for instruments; they may also explore vocal compositions, including choral works, symphonies, operas, and musicals. Percussion and electronic instruments provide further avenues for creative expression.
Alternatively, composers, as seen in musique concrète, may incorporate unconventional sounds like typewriters and sirens into their works.
Elizabeth Swados emphasizes in “Listening Out Loud” the importance of understanding each instrument’s capabilities and ensuring they complement, rather than compete with, one another. Every instrument chosen should contribute meaningfully to the overall message conveyed in the composition.
Arranging involves the use of existing material to offer commentary, as seen in mash-ups and contemporary classical works. The process includes analyzing existing music, transcribing, and often introducing new supporting material. These modified versions of a composition are referred to as arrangements.
Interpretation comes into play even in precisely notated music, such as Western classical music from the 1750s onwards. Performers and conductors make decisions that notation does not explicitly specify, termed “interpretation.” Different interpretations of the same piece can vary in tempos, playing or singing styles, and phrasing.
This individualized approach is distinct from performance practice, which represents the standard choices and techniques prevailing in a specific time and place. Composers and songwriters presenting their own music in a concert are actively interpreting their songs, akin to performers interpreting the works of others.
Ulli Beier played a pivotal role in founding the Ibadan Mbari club in 1961, a significant hub that brought together diverse forms of artistic creativity. Alongside his wife, Georgina Susanne Wenger,
Beier was instrumental in establishing the Oshogbo School of Arts, which gave rise to numerous Nigerian contemporary artists, including Twin Seven-Seven, Jimoh Buraimoh, Jacob Afolabi, Rufus Ogundele, Muraina Oyelami, Adebisi, and Lasisi Gbadamosi.
The Enugu Mbari also contributed to the emergence of young talents like Inyong and Emmanuel Nzo Ndubuisi.
Noteworthy figures in the realm of Nigerian contemporary literature include Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, Christopher Okigbo, J. P. Clark, and Amos Tutuola.
Aina Onabolu, Akinola Labeka, Professor Ben Enwoyi, Bruce Onabrakeya, Yusuf Grillo, Kolade Oshinnowo, Ladi Kwali, Eghabor Emokpae, Uche, and Lamidi Fakeye are prominent studio artists in the contemporary Nigerian art scene.
Figures such as Olaniyi Oseni (Twin 77) and Hubert Ogunde have left a lasting impact as dramatic performers in the contemporary art landscape.
The realm of art education boasts influential figures like Professor Solomon Ireiwangboje, Udo Emma, T. A. Fasayi, Professor Jimoh Akolo, Olaosebikan, Clara Ngu (Nee Uguda), R. B. Fatuyi, G. T. Talabi, S. Sulaimon, Ajayi Adebayo, Ayo Ajayi, I. N. Uzoagba.
Notable art historians include Aniakobi, Hawar Babtunde, and Doctor Dele Jegede, among others. Many of these individuals have played crucial roles in shaping the discourse around Nigerian art history.
The Nsukka School of Art, closely associated with uli art, has been influenced by key figures such as Adenaike and Uche Okeke. Artists like Tayo Adenaike, Chuka Amaefuna, Chike Aniakor, Charles Nwachukwu Anyakora, Mike Irrifere, Uzo Ndubisi, Ray Obeta, Ego Uche-Okeke, and Obiora Udechukwu have made significant contributions.
Adenaike assesses the Oshogbo experiment, noting that the mature period (post-1970) has experienced some stagnation and repetition. While the initial burst of creativity waned, artists like Twins Seven-Seven, Rufus Ogundele, Muraina Oyelami, and Jimoh Buraimoh continued to experiment with mixed results. Adenaike acknowledges the experiment’s worthiness, crediting Ulli Beier for his vision and international promotion of Oshogbo art. However, a critical assessment of the artworks themselves is deemed necessary.
The artists discussed in this context include Jacob Afolabi, Jimoh Buraimoh, Adebisi Fabunmi, Demas Nwoko, Rufus Ogundele, Uche Okeke, Asiru Olatunde, Bruce Onobrakpeya, Muraina Oyelami, Twins Seven-Seven, Obiora Udechukwu, Solomon Irein Wangboje, and Susanne Wenger.
In the limited selection of books discussing contemporary Nigerian art—namely, those by Evelyn Brown, Ulli Beier, Kojo Fosu, and Marshall Mount—only the latter two make attempts at classification. Fosu’s classification is rooted in historical sequences, devoid of considerations for form, while Mount’s categorization revolves around broad geo-political groupings and artists’ training.
Disregarding these prior attempts at categorizing modern Nigerian art, Adepegba introduces a comprehensive four-part classification based on form and content: discernible images of experiences and ideas; naive visions, nurtured and solidified; abstractions beyond common understanding; and revisitations and adaptations of traditional art forms.
Each category is detailed, drawing examples from “The Nucleus,” the 1981 catalog of the National Gallery of Modern Art’s collection. It’s important to note that the classification pertains to artworks, not individual artists, who may produce works falling into multiple categories.
Defining contemporary Nigerian art proves to be a more challenging and complex task than describing new art and artists, which is precisely what Adepegba undertakes in this exploration. His essay weaves through many familiar names such as Abuja, Oye Ekiti, Ovia Idah, Akinola Lasekan, Kenneth Murray, Aina Onabolu, and Oshogbo.
The Oshogbo school, in particular, faces critical evaluation as a flashy yet essentially unrooted movement destined to be transient.
Similarly, Michael Crowder’s Ori Olokun Cultural Centre in Ile-Ife is depicted as being surpassed by formal university-based art training and by museums and exhibitions consciously aiming to collect and promote contemporary artworks.
Adeyemi, Ester.
Alfred F. Spinnler, captivated by the spontaneity and vitality of Nigerian and Ghanaian 20th-century art, began collecting paintings during his time in Lagos in the 1980s and 1990s, establishing personal connections with many artists. This catalog showcases a selection of works from his private collection, featuring thirty-two Nigerian artists and five Ghanaian artists. Some, like Bruce Onobrakpeya, Jimoh Buraimoh, Kola Oshinowo, Muraina Oyelami, and Ablade Glover, are well-established, while others represent emerging talents. Each painter (all exclusively painters) has a few works illustrated and discussed, accompanied by biographical information. The catalog also includes brief essays on the state of contemporary art in Nigeria and Ghana, along with Spinnler’s personal essay detailing his journey as an art collector.
ANIAKOR, CHIKE C.
Aniakor delves into the intricate relationship between contemporary Nigerian artists and tradition. He critically examines various definitions of both traditional and contemporary art by authors such as William Fagg, Robert Armstrong, Simon Ottenberg, Rene Bravmann, as well as artists Demas Nwoko and Uche Okeke. Nigerian artists benefiting from tradition, including Yemi Bisiri, Lamidi Fakeye, Yusuf Grillo, Bruce Onobrakpeya, and Twins Seven-Seven, are discussed. Erhabor Emokpae emerges as an exception.
Skokian art, coined by Okechukwu Odita’s unique classification of contemporary art, primarily refers to realistic art. This dissertation, authored by one of Odita’s students, scrutinizes the works of several exemplars of realistic painting and sculpture by Nigerian artists, featuring well-known figures such as Aina Onabolu, Abayomi Barber, Kolade Oshinowo, Ben Enwonwu, Ben Ekanem, Chudi Igboanugo, and Nsikak Essien.
Aradeon posits that when art draws inspiration from traditional life, mythology, and designs, it plays a crucial role in forging a national identity transcending ethnic boundaries.
She supports her argument by examining various aspects of Nigerian art, including genre scenes (exemplified by Akinola Lasekan), historical portraiture (Erhabor Emokpae), traditional mythology (Uche Okeke or Twins Seven Seven), depictions of sculptures (David Dale), traditional design motifs (Tayo Adenaike), the use of traditional artistic media (Jimoh Buraimoh’s beadwork), traditional design principles (Bruce Onobrakpeya or Obiora Udechukwu), and traditional approaches to creativity (Onobrakpeya or Okeke). Aradeon also explores the influence of artists on each other, such as Twins Seven Seven drawing from Okeke’s work.
The Exhibition of Arts and Crafts sponsored by the Lagos Branch of the Nigerian Council for the Advancement of Art and Culture during the Independence celebrations showcased a surprisingly varied collection of talent in both content and style.
While intended to be representative rather than selective, the exhibition displayed uneven quality but underscored the diversity within “contemporary” art in Nigeria.
Notable among the promising yet lesser-known artists were Festus Idehen and Osifo Osagie, both Benin sculptors trained at Yaba College of Technology. The Zaria group of artists—Jimo Akolo, Yusuf Grillo, Bruce Onobrakpeya, Uche Okeke, Simon Okeke, and Demas Nwoko—captured Beier’s attention as truly modern in outlook yet firmly rooted in their respective cultures.
In his writing around the time of Nigerian independence, Beier expresses dismay at the persistent belief that only traditional African art holds merit. He endeavors to showcase the vitality and dynamism of contemporary
Nigerian art, drawing inspiration from both traditional streams of creativity and newer outside influences, especially Christian ones. Addressing wood sculpture and metalwork in the context of their religious and social applications, Beier optimistically asserts that, by 1960, good art encompassed various forms, including architecture, cement sculpture, commercial signs and posters, and painting.
Oshogbo has assumed different roles for different people, being described as an art movement, an art school, an experiment, and more.
In this thirty-year retrospective group portrait of the Oshogbo phenomenon, Beier, a key participant, lets the artists, catalyzers, and collectors speak for themselves. Recollections from artists such as Muraina Oyelami, Twins Seven Seven, Bisi Fabunmi, Tijani Mayakiri, Rufus Ogundele, Ademola Onibonokuta, and Georgina Beier provide unique perspectives, creating a comprehensive picture of what Oshogbo was and is. Additionally, Ulli Beier contributes essays on Asiru, Denis Williams, Ru van Rossem, and the question of patronage.
Bosah, Chukwuemeka, and George Edozie collaborated on this book, which commemorates Nigeria’s 50th anniversary of independence by highlighting the vibrancy of Nigerian art in 2010. Chukwuemeka Bosah, the visionary behind the project, brought together artists and resources to bring this publication to fruition.
The selection process for the 101 featured artists remains somewhat unclear. Essentially, the book serves as a visual representation of contemporary Nigerian art, primarily dominated by painting. Despite the artists’ relative obscurity and the absence of biographical information, the volume is impeccably produced. The introductory essays are contributed by E. Okechukwu Odita, Frank Ugiomoh, and Unoma Numero.
The Chartered Bank’s collection of contemporary Nigerian art originated in 1989 with the support of Mr. Odunayo Olagundoye, the Managing Director of the Lagos bank.
The collection, which began with a painting by Kolade Oshinowo, had grown to 149 works by 2000, spanning various media.
This catalog features sixty pieces, representing nine regional art schools and other aesthetic and historical criteria. Curator Olasehinde Odimayo provides an introduction outlining the collection’s history, scope, acquisition policy, and even identifies artists yet to be included—an unusual twist in corporate collections aiming for a comprehensive representation.
Uche Okeke’s essay, “History of Modern Nigerian Art,” reprinted from Nigeria magazine, sets the contextual background for comprehending contemporary Nigerian art.
The essay introduces nine regional formal and informal art schools, offering a framework for understanding 20th-century Nigerian art. Additionally, artists like Ben Enwonwu, Ben Osawe, and Ghanaian Ablade Glover, who don’t neatly fit into these classifications, are discussed.
Jean Kennedy, returning from several years in Nigeria to the United States, devoted her efforts to promoting Nigerian artists in America. Her 1969 exhibition in Los Angeles, featuring Oshogbo artists among others, toured for five years and significantly contributed to establishing Oshogbo as synonymous with contemporary African art in the United States.
Benin City’s rich artistic history is highlighted, with the University of Benin continuing the tradition of training in the plastic arts. The catalog aims to spotlight Lagos as a thriving art scene by showcasing collectors, artists, and their work, emphasizing the city’s vital role in the art world.
Michael Crowder contrasts contemporary Nigerian artists with their traditional counterparts, examining their patrons, audience, and critics. The discussion includes renowned artists such as Ben Enwonwu, Yusuf Grillo, and Twins Seven-Seven.
The catalog underscores Nigeria’s prominence in both ancient and modern art. Thirty-one artists, primarily from Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, are featured with color illustrations and brief biographical sketches.
Justene Nebechianya W. C. Eze delves into the legacy of the Zaria Art Society, founded in 1958 by art students at the Nigerian College of Arts, Science, and Technology. The artistic impact of the society is explored through the subsequent careers of its five prime movers.
Emmanuel Olakunle Filani argues for a cultural synthesis of old and new in contemporary Nigerian art. He discusses the infusion of abstraction and the artists’ freedom to create new forms that comment on Nigerian society.
The book explores the evolution of modern Nigerian printmaking since the late 1950s, focusing on Bruce Onobrakpeya and Irein Wangboje. The artists’ innovative styles and techniques are discussed in detail.
The author’s dissertation forms the basis of the book, comparing and contrasting eight Yoruba artists—four university-trained and four informally trained. The emphasis is on the manifestation of Yoruba motifs in their work.
The catalog documents the Harmattan Workshops initiated by Bruce Onobrakpeya in 1998 in Agbarha-Otor, Delta State, Nigeria. It records the experiences of the first two workshops, discussing their origins, goals, and featuring biographical sketches of participating artists. Illustrations of completed artworks are included, and Mike Omoighe contributes an essay on the significance of art workshops in contemporary African art.
Expanding on the accomplishments of the preceding Harmattan workshops, the third installment, known as Harmattan 3, hosted fifty-five artists for a two-week period in early 2000.
Divided into five distinct media sections—stone carving, metal sculpture, painting, printmaking, and pottery and ceramics—the workshop attracted both invited and uninvited participants, primarily consisting of already trained and practicing artists or teachers. Each artist selected a major and minor area of concentration.
The workshop’s intellectually and creatively stimulating environment included lectures and discussions, detailed in this catalog. Reports on all media sections, accompanied by artworks later exhibited in Lagos, are presented, along with participant biodata. The catalog also features an essay on the architecture of Demas Nwoko.
The successful fourth iteration, Harmattan 4, inducted over 50 participants, predominantly male, into an extended program that introduced new artistic mediums—bronze casting and jewelry, and wood sculpture.
Workshop facilities underwent expansion, incorporating a locally constructed printing press, and artists were accommodated at Bruce Onobrakpeya’s compound in Agbarha-Otor in the Niger Delta.
Workshop trainers played the role of facilitators, offering guidance and encouragement for artists to explore diverse media. Seminar sessions covered topics such as arts administration, funding, visual arts documentation, pricing artworks, kiln construction, metal casting in Nigeria, disability and distortion in Nigerian sculpture, art workshops in Africa, and clay as a medium. Artworks created during the workshop are illustrated, and each artist is profiled.
Bruce Onobrakpeya’s Harmattan Workshop marked its fifth season in 2003, with an expanded range of media, including a textile section alongside painting, printmaking, stone and wood carving, metal sculpture, bronze casting, jewelry making, and ceramics.
Sixty-two artists participated, and their experimental works, varying in success, are showcased in this catalog. The hands-on studio work is complemented by papers, discussions, and poetry readings. The catalog publishes seven contributions from these sessions.
In 2004, the sixth Harmattan Workshop involved around sixty artists, with honors bestowed upon the septuagenarians Wole Soyinka and Yusuf Grillo.
Most artists were academically trained and mainly from the Niger Delta region and Lagos, lacking representation from northern Nigeria.
The workshop encouraged experimentation in new media to broaden artists’ horizons, resulting in reproduced works in this catalog. Evening programs included lectures and discussions on art history and practice, with six papers reprinted.
Erich Herold delves into Ulli Beier’s collection of Nigerian sign paintings, now housed in the Náprstek Museum in Prague.
The collection features works by Middle Art and other Onitsha and Owerri painters. Herold closely examines the style and imagery of portraits in these paintings, proposing a hypothetical model for representation: Patrice Lumumba, the fallen hero of Congo’s independence.
The act of sight-reading involves reading and performing a piece of music or song in notation that the performer has not encountered before. Sight-singing, on the other hand, refers to a singer engaging in sight-reading, where both activities demand the musician to interpret and execute notated rhythms and pitches.
Many consider sight-singing to be more challenging than sight-reading, as singers lack the aids such as keys, frets, or valves, found on instruments like keyboards, guitars, and valved brass instruments. Singers face the added complexity of reading and vocalizing correct lyrics, introducing an additional layer beyond pitch and dynamics.
The difficulty varies depending on the instrument and the complexity of the piece; for instance, sight-reading on a polyphonic instrument like the classical guitar may pose greater challenges due to the need to interpret polyrhythms and polyphonic passages played in different positions and using various frets.
The term “sight-reading” is commonly used generically in music literature to describe the ability to read and perform both instrumental and vocal music at first sight. Some prefer more specific terms like “sight-playing” and “sight-singing.” Another, more restricted use of “sight-reading” refers to silently reading music without producing sound.
Exceptionally skilled musicians can sight-read silently, mentally translating printed music into audible sounds without playing or singing. Less proficient sight-readers typically need to hum or whistle to effectively sight-read.
This distinction parallels the historical development of silent reading in ordinary prose during the Middle Ages. Renowned musicians like Franz Liszt were celebrated for their ability to sight-read complex piano pieces.
The Italian term “a prima vista” is often used in music, signifying playing a musical piece at first sight. According to Payne, the ability to audibly perceive the notes on the page is crucial for effective performance.
Sight-reading is essential for all musicians, even amateurs, but it is considered a vital professional skill for orchestral and session musicians. Some professional orchestras require candidates to sight-read orchestral parts during auditions.
Sight transposition involves musicians transposing music during performance to accommodate specific instruments, vocal ranges, or to facilitate playing or singing.
Sight-playing, as defined by Udtaisuk, refers to instrumental sight-reading performance, combining the unique skill sets of music reading and music making. Similarly, sight-singing, according to Udtaisuk, is used for vocal sight-reading, and the term “sightsinging” is advocated for its descriptive accuracy, highlighting the combination of sight-reading and singing skills.
Nigeria, characterized by numerous rural areas often lacking basic amenities such as electricity and recreational facilities, witnesses community gatherings under trees or on verandas for conversation due to the scarcity of entertainment options.
While festivities and ceremonies punctuate rural life, the prevalent boredom in these areas calls for a consistent source of amusement throughout the year. In the context of Nigeria’s developmental status, it becomes the societal duty of the government to not only create jobs but also provide recreational outlets for the populace, thus ensuring their well-being. This obligation is fundamental for any responsible and responsive government.
The government’s role in enhancing the quality of life and welfare of the people can be actualized through theatrical arts, which, according to Cohen (2003), is a significant occupation. Drama, synonymous with theatre, involves actions and performances, presenting an opportunity to address unemployment among youths in Nigeria.
To leverage drama as a means of job creation, a collaborative effort from all levels of government—the federal, state, and local—is crucial. The Ministry of Youths, Sports, and Culture can play a pivotal role in this initiative.
Proposing the establishment of at least three dramatic troupes in each local government, the project aims to showcase performances at various public venues, both rural and urban, on a rotational basis. This strategy prevents monotony and encourages audience engagement.
The performances, held in public buildings such as town halls or school assembly halls, can be executed with modest structures equipped with stages, seating, and scenery construction—a concept echoed by Cohen (2003) citing the Greek Theatron. Affordable gate fees, contingent on the drama’s theme, would be instituted to make the events accessible to the community.
Beyond entertainment, these dramatic performances can serve as a medium to disseminate information about government programs, policies, and activities.
This, in turn, can contribute to national development and foster nation-building. The transformative power of drama, as noted by Barranger (2002), lies in its ability to entertain, educate, and positively impact society. By introducing dynamism to rural life, this initiative may foster a sense of appreciation for rural communities, potentially reducing the rural-urban migration trend observed in Nigeria.
The art of embroidery involves adorning fabric or other materials using a needle to apply thread or yarn, often incorporating additional elements like pearls, beads, quills, and sequins. In contemporary times, embroidery is commonly found on items such as caps, hats, coats, blankets, dress shirts, denim, dresses, stockings, and golf shirts, offering a diverse range of thread or yarn colors.
The foundational techniques of early embroidery encompass chain stitch, buttonhole or blanket stitch, running stitch, satin stitch, and cross stitch, which continue to serve as the fundamental methods in hand embroidery today.
The evolution of sewing techniques, initially employed for tailoring, patching, mending, and reinforcing cloth, gave rise to the art of embroidery.
Notably, the enduring stability of basic embroidery stitches has been observed, with no discernible transition from primitive to refined methods. Early examples of embroidery have been discovered globally, including works dating back to China’s Warring States period (5th–3rd century BC) and garments from Migration period Sweden (300–700 AD).
Embroidery can be categorized based on its consideration of the base material and the relationship of stitch placement to the fabric. The primary classifications include free or surface embroidery, counted embroidery, and needlepoint or canvas work.
In free or surface embroidery, designs are applied without regard to the fabric’s weave, as seen in crewel and traditional Chinese and Japanese embroidery.
Counted-thread embroidery involves creating patterns by stitching over a predetermined number of threads, suitable for even-weave foundation fabrics like embroidery canvas or aida cloth. Needlepoint or canvas work entails stitching threads through a fabric mesh to create dense patterns, exemplified by techniques like bargello and Berlin wool work.
Embroidery can also be classified by appearance, with drawn thread work, cutwork, and whitework techniques altering or cutting the foundation fabric to create holes embellished with embroidery.
Traditional embroidery utilizes a variety of fabrics and yarns, with wool, linen, and silk being longstanding choices. Today, embroidery thread comes in cotton, rayon, novelty yarns, as well as traditional wool, linen, and silk. Ribbon embroidery employs narrow silk or silk/organza blend ribbon, often for floral motifs. Different embroidery techniques, such as surface embroidery and canvas work, may require specific materials for optimal results.
Contemporary embroidery extends beyond handcraft, incorporating computerized embroidery machines that use digitized patterns. Machine embroidery introduces diverse “fills” to add texture and design, commonly applied to business attire, gifts, team apparel, household linens, draperies, and decorator fabrics. Free hand machine embroidery has also emerged, allowing users to create free-motion embroidery for various textile arts, quilting, dressmaking, home furnishings, and more.
A chord refers to any combination of three or more pitch classes that sound simultaneously. A three-note chord with pitch classes arranged as thirds is known as a triad. To quickly confirm if a three-note chord is a triad, arrange the notes on the “circle of thirds” below, where the pitch classes of a triad will always be adjacent. Triads are identified by their root and quality.
To determine a triad’s root, arrange pitch classes on a circle of thirds mentally or on paper. The root is the lowest note in the three-pitch-class group. If the circle ascends by thirds clockwise, the root is the earliest note, and the other pitch classes follow.
Once the root is known, identify the remaining notes as the third (a third above the root) and the fifth (a fifth above the root).
To find a triad’s quality, identify the interval between the root and the other members of the chord. There are four qualities of triads in major and minor scales, each with specific intervals:
A triad can be represented by a lead-sheet chord symbol, including information about the root quality and the pitch class in the lowest voice. The symbol starts with a capital letter denoting the root, followed by a quality indicator:
If a pitch class other than the root is the lowest note, a slash is added, followed by a capital letter denoting the bass pitch class.
Chords are labeled using Roman numerals to indicate their function within a key. Capital Roman numerals are used for major triads, lowercase for minor triads, lowercase followed by “º” for diminished triads, and capital followed by “+” for augmented triads.
In major keys, chords with the same Roman numeral share the same scale degrees and quality. The same applies to minor keys.
In music, a triad is a set of three vertically stacked notes, and the term “harmonic triad” was coined by Johannes Lippius. The members of a triad, from lowest to highest pitch, are the root, the third (a minor or major third above the root), and the fifth (a minor or major third above the third). The root note doesn’t have to be the lowest in the chord due to inversion.
Some theorists broaden the term to any combination of three different pitches, using “trichord.” Others, like Allen Forte, refer to combinations stacked with other intervals, such as “quartal triad.”
During the Baroque era, Western art music transitioned from a horizontal contrapuntal approach to chord progressions, relying on the triad as the basic building block of functional harmony.
Each triad in a diatonic key corresponds to a specific diatonic function. Functional harmony relies heavily on primary triads (tonic, subdominant, and dominant), symbolized as I, IV, and V. The secondary triads (supertonic, mediant, submediant, and subtonic) function as auxiliary or supportive triads.
A motif can be an element present in the iconography of a specific subject or type of subject, recurring in other works, or serving as the central theme itself, as often observed in ancient art, such as the Master of Animals motif.
The motif of confronted animals, closely related, is frequently encountered individually but may also be replicated, as seen in Byzantine silk and various ancient textiles.
When the primary focus of an artistic work, such as a painting, revolves around a particular person, group, or narrative moment, it should be identified as the “subject” of the work, not a motif.
However, the same element may be considered a “motif” when part of another subject or when incorporated into a decorative art piece, like a vase painting.
Ornamental or decorative art can typically be deconstructed into various elements termed motifs, often repeated in patterns, especially in textile art. Prominent examples in Western art include acanthus, egg and dart, and various types of scrollwork.
Numerous designs in Islamic culture, such as those featuring the sun, moon, animals like horses and lions, flowers, and landscapes, are considered motifs.
Motifs can evoke emotional responses and serve propagandistic purposes. In kilim flatwoven carpets, motifs like the hands-on-hips elibelinde are woven into the design to convey the hopes and concerns of the weavers; for instance, the elibelinde symbolizes the female principle and fertility, including the desire for children.
The concept of a motif has expanded in its application, being more broadly employed in discussions about literature and other narrative arts to refer to an element in the story representing a theme.
In music, harmony involves the simultaneous use of pitches, tones, or chords. The study of harmony delves into the construction of chords, chord progressions, and the governing principles of their connection. It represents the vertical dimension of music, distinguishing itself from the horizontal aspect of melodic lines.
Harmony examines the process of analyzing the composition of sounds or the superposition of sounds through hearing. This typically involves the simultaneous occurrence of frequencies, pitches, or chords. The study encompasses chord construction, chord progressions, and the principles governing their connection.
Harmony is often described as the “vertical” aspect of music, contrasting with the “horizontal” aspect of melodic lines. Counterpoint, addressing the relationship between melodic lines, and polyphony, involving the simultaneous sounding of independent voices, are sometimes distinguished from harmony.
In popular and jazz harmony, chords are identified by their root along with terms indicating their qualities. In various music genres such as baroque, romantic, modern, and jazz, chords may be enriched with “tensions.
” Tensions are additional chord members creating dissonant intervals in relation to the bass. Typically, a dissonant chord (with tension) resolves to a consonant chord during the classical common practice period. Harmony is perceived as pleasant when there is a balance between consonant and dissonant sounds, creating a harmony between “tense” and “relaxed” moments.
Carl Dahlhaus (1990) distinguishes between coordinate and subordinate harmony. Subordinate harmony, prevalent in contemporary tonal music, contrasts with coordinate harmony, an older Medieval and Renaissance tonalité ancienne.
Coordinate harmony involves direct relationships, while subordinate harmony follows indirect relationships. Interval cycles give rise to symmetrical harmonies, extensively used by composers such as Alban Berg, George Perle, Arnold Schoenberg, Béla Bartók, and Edgard Varèse’s Density 21.5.
Close harmony and open harmony use close position and open position chords, respectively, with voicing (music) and close and open harmony further explaining these concepts.
Other harmony types are based on the intervals of the chords used. Western music often relies on “tertian” harmony, built with thirds. Quartal and quintal harmony represent alternative harmony types.
A unison, though often overlooked, is considered a harmonic interval, similar to a fifth or a third. Unison is two identical notes produced together and is essential, especially in orchestration. In Pop music, unison singing is termed doubling. Singing in unison or playing the same notes simultaneously with different instruments is known as monophonic harmonization.
An interval denotes the relationship between two separate musical pitches. For instance, in the melody Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, the first two notes and the second two notes are at the interval of a fifth. This means that if the first two notes were the pitch C, the second two notes would be the pitch G—a perfect fifth above.
Therefore, harmony is created by combining notes with specific intervals to form chords. For example, in a C chord, C is the root, and E and G provide harmony. In a G7 (G dominant 7th) chord, the root G and subsequent notes (B, D, and F) contribute to the harmony.
In the musical scale, there are twelve pitches referred to as “degrees” of the scale. The tonic, or 1st-degree note, can be any of the 12 notes, and the other notes fall into place accordingly.
This flexibility allows musical works to be played or sung in any key, as long as the intervals remain the same. Intervals beyond the perfect octave (12 semitones) are called compound intervals, including the 9th, 11th, and 13th intervals, widely used in jazz and blues music.
The concept of harmony, rooted in consonance, has undergone multiple redefinitions throughout the history of Western music.
From a psychological standpoint, consonance is viewed as a continuous variable, exhibiting a broad spectrum of variation. The reasons behind the perceived consonance of a chord are multifaceted.
One factor is the absence of perceptual roughness, a phenomenon occurring when partials (frequency components) fall within a critical bandwidth—a measure of the ear’s ability to distinguish between different frequencies.
This critical bandwidth widens at lower frequencies and ranges between 2 and 3 semitones at higher frequencies.
The degree of roughness in simultaneous harmonic complex tones is influenced by the amplitudes of the harmonics and the interval between the tones.
The most rugged interval in the chromatic scale is the minor second and its inverse, the major seventh. Following closely are intervals like the major second, minor seventh, tritone, minor third (major sixth), major third (minor sixth), and perfect fourth (fifth).
Another reason lies in perceptual fusion, where a chord is perceived as fused if its overall spectrum resembles a harmonic series.
For instance, a major triad fuses more effectively than a minor triad, and a major-minor seventh chord fuses better than a major-major seventh or minor-minor seventh.
Though less evident in tempered contexts, these distinctions contribute to the prevalence of major triads and major-minor sevenths in mainstream tonal music, reflecting stylistic influences.
The third factor is familiarity, wherein chords frequently encountered in musical contexts tend to be perceived as more consonant.
This principle elucidates the historical progression of Western music towards increased harmonic complexity. Unprepared seventh chords around 1600 gradually gained familiarity and, consequently, were perceived as more consonant.
Major and minor triads form the basis of Western music due to their consonance in terms of both fusion and lack of roughness.
Their fusion results from the inclusion of the perfect fourth/fifth interval, while their lack of roughness is attributed to the absence of major and minor second intervals—a unique combination in the chromatic scale.
Post-nineteenth-century music has witnessed an evolution where tension is less frequently prepared and structured compared to Baroque or Classical periods.
This shift has given rise to new styles like post-romantic harmony, impressionism, pantonality, Jazz, and Blues, where dissonance may not adhere to the preparedness observed in traditional harmony. In genres like jazz or blues, a tonic chord might take the form of a dominant seventh chord.
Choreography is the artistic discipline involving the design of sequences of movements executed by physical bodies or their representations, specifying motion, form, or both. It encompasses the creation of choreographic designs, and those who engage in this process are referred to as choreographers.
The application of choreography extends across various domains, including musical theater, cheerleading, cinematography, gymnastics, fashion shows, ice skating, marching band, show choir, theatre, synchronized swimming, cardistry, video game production, and animated art.
Within the performing arts, choreography is particularly pertinent to human movement and form, often known as dance choreography or dance composition.
The term “choreography” originates from the Greek words “χορεία” (circular dance, see choreia) and “γραφή” (writing), literally translating to “dance-writing.” It was introduced into American English in the 1950s, and the credit “choreographer” was first associated with George Balanchine in the 1936 Broadway show On Your Toes.
Contemporary Dance is an art form characterized by its exploration of human movement, devoid of fixed patterns.
Dancers in contemporary dance employ diverse modern and classical techniques in their training, presenting performances in traditional and unconventional venues.
This genre engages in a continuous dialogue with various aesthetic languages, including audiovisual technologies, visual arts, lighting, architecture, music, and circus.
A Choreographer in contemporary dance is an artist who works with human movement as a creative medium. In this context, a contemporary dance choreographer serves as the overall director of scenic art pieces, incorporating multiple aesthetic languages under their creative judgment.
Abstraction in dance refers to choreography that lacks a narrative character. It focuses solely on movement itself and does not convey a story, symbolic content, or associations with feelings, ideas, or other elements.
Accumulation, introduced by American choreographer Trisha Brown in the 1970s, denotes a choreographic method involving the gradual and repetitive construction of gestures.
Alignment involves placing bones in a manner that enhances physiological effectiveness and health, with variations depending on the aesthetic goals of the dance genre.
Arch is a position where the entire or upper body is extended, forming the shape of an arch.
Beat serves as the basic unit for measuring time in choreographic and musical language, representing a pulse that repeats at a specific frequency.
Body placement refers to how the body is carried, encompassing the positioning and alignment of large bones, limbs, head, and micro-organizations of muscles, unique to each dance genre.
Canon, akin to its use in music, defines a compositional structure in which several dancers execute the same choreographic fragment at intervals.
Clarity of line, often emphasized in ballet, pertains to the precision with which a dancer achieves an ideal shape with their body, especially in specific positions like arabesques.
Knitting involves manipulating yarn to create a textile or fabric, forming multiple loops known as stitches in a line or tube.
The process employs multiple active stitches on the needle simultaneously, resulting in a fabric composed of consecutive rows of interlocking loops. As each row progresses, a newly created loop is pulled through loops from the prior row, placed on the gaining needle, and the previous row’s loops are then removed from the other needle.
Hand or machine methods can be employed in knitting. Various yarn types, needle sizes, and stitch techniques are utilized to achieve fabrics with diverse properties such as color, texture, weight, heat retention, appearance, water resistance, and integrity.
Similar to weaving, knitting produces a two-dimensional fabric from a one-dimensional yarn or thread. While weaving features straight threads running parallel lengthwise (warp threads) or crosswise (weft threads), knitted fabrics have a meandering path or course, forming symmetric loops above and below the yarn’s mean path.
This meandering quality grants knit fabrics greater elasticity compared to woven fabrics, allowing them to stretch in multiple directions. Knitted garments, initially developed for elasticity, can stretch up to 500%, making them ideal for items like socks and hosiery.
Knitted garments tend to be more form-fitting than woven ones due to their elasticity, allowing them to contour closely to the body.
Unlike woven garments that introduce curvature through sewn elements, knitted garments can incorporate curvature without seams, such as in the heel of a sock. The thread used in weaving is finer than knitting yarn, giving knitted fabric more bulk and less drape than woven fabric.
If not secured, the loops in a knitted course can unravel when the yarn is pulled—a phenomenon known as ripping out, unraveling knitting, or humorously, frogging. Stitch security involves passing at least one new loop through it, creating an unsecured yet active stitch that holds the stitches suspended from it.
A sequence of suspended stitches is called a wale, and techniques like casting on and binding/casting off secure the initial and final stitches in a wale. In knitting, active stitches are secured mechanically, either through individual hooks in machines or with a knitting needle or frame in hand-knitting.
There are two primary types of knitting: weft knitting and warp knitting. In weft knitting, the wales run perpendicular to the yarn course, and the entire fabric can be crafted from a single yarn by adding stitches across the fabric, akin to a raster scan. On the other hand, warp knitting involves one yarn for each wale, and it’s typically done by machines due to the requirement for numerous yarns.
Weft-knit fabrics can incorporate multiple yarns to create diverse color patterns, with common techniques like intarsia and stranded colorwork. Intarsia involves using segregated yarn regions for distinct elements, while stranded colorwork alternates two or more yarns within a row, requiring them to be carried along the row.
Knit and purl stitches play a pivotal role in creating various fabric patterns. The visual distinction between knit stitches resembling stacked “V”s and purl stitches appearing as wavy horizontal lines allows for the formation of intricate designs. Knitted fabrics can feature patterns such as garter stitch, stockinette stitch, ribbing, welting, and checkerboard patterns, each offering unique visual effects.
Fabrics with an uneven number of knit and purl stitches, like stockinet/stoking stitch, tend to curl, while symmetrical arrangements, such as ribbing or garter stitch, lie flat. The interplay of knit and purl stitches influences the fabric’s appearance, with knit wales tending to come forward and purl wales receding.
The process of knitting involves passing a new stitch through an unsecured loop, lengthening the wale. Different techniques, like dip stitches, smocking effects, and decreases, allow for diverse fabric textures and appearances. Slip-stitch knitting, where stitches are intentionally left unsecured and slipped to subsequent rows, produces visually interesting yet less deformable fabrics.
Drop-stitch knitting intentionally leaves a stitch unsecured, creating a vertical ladder of see-through holes in the fabric as the wale disassembles. These variations in knitting techniques offer a wide range of creative possibilities in fabric design and texture.
Stitches can be classified as right-plaited or left-plaited based on their orientation. The right-plaited stitches are located on the right side, while the left-plaited stitches are found on the left side.
New stitches, whether knit or purl, can incorporate an arbitrary number of twists within certain limits. In the illustration, a single twist is depicted, with left-plaited and right-plaited stitches on the left and right sides, respectively.
Both knit and purl stitches can be twisted, usually once, but occasionally twice or even thrice. The direction of the twist, when viewed from above, can be clockwise (right yarn over left) or counterclockwise (left yarn over right), denoted as right- and left-plaited stitches, respectively.
Right-plaited stitches are typically created by knitting or purling through the back loops, while left-plaited stitches are formed by wrapping the yarn in the opposite way, without altering the needle motion. Despite being mirror images, both types of plaited stitches are functionally equivalent.
They provide a subtle yet visually interesting texture and tend to tighten the fabric, making it stiffer. Plaited stitches are commonly used in knitting jewelry from fine metal wire.
When it comes to knitting materials, all you need to begin is a pair of needles and a ball of yarn. However, to complete a project, additional items are essential.
An experienced knitter’s kit typically includes a tapestry needle for weaving in yarn tails, stitch markers for marking specific points in a pattern, stitch holders for setting aside stitches, row counters to keep track of rows, a measuring tape for accurate measurements, and needle caps to prevent stitches from slipping off during breaks.
As for knitting needles, there are three main types: straight needles for rectangular projects like scarves, double-point needles for small projects worked in the round, and circular needles for larger projects and those worked in the round.
Circular needles, with two connected needle heads and a cord, are essential for projects like blankets and offer flexibility in cord length and needle size. Double-point needles are used for smaller round projects like mittens, and they can be employed after starting a project on circular needles.
Singing “in parts” involves each voice, such as soprano, tenor, alto, and bass, following its own independent line. The specific content of each line is determined by the composer or arranger, as well as the harmonic structure of the piece.
These parts can create consonances or dissonances, and they may move in parallel, contrary, or oblique motion.
On the other hand, singing “in unison” means that all voices are singing the same line, though they may be in different octaves. Typically, in the context of voices, this results in men singing one octave below women.
A choir, also known as a chorale or chorus, is a musical ensemble of singers, and choral music is composed specifically for such ensembles. Choirs may perform a range of music, from classical to popular, and are usually led by a conductor who guides performances through gestures.
The term “choir” also has a secondary definition as a subset of an ensemble, such as the “woodwind choir” in an orchestra or different “choirs” of voices and/or instruments in a polychoral composition.
In classical and romantic music, composers explored the symphony and instrumental music, with Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven contributing significant choral works. In the 19th century, sacred music transitioned from the church to the concert stage, featuring large works like Berlioz’s Te Deum and Requiem.
Oratorios continued to be written, influenced by Handel, with works like Berlioz’s L’enfance du Christ and Mendelssohn’s Elijah. Modernist composers like Schoenberg and Vaughan Williams added new dimensions to choral music in the 20th century, incorporating atonality and non-traditional harmonic systems.
Choral music in the 20th century also saw the influence of serialism, exemplified by Schoenberg, and the exploration of dissonant counterpoint by composers like Messiaen and Ives. More accessible styles include Benjamin Britten’s compositions, Poulenc’s Motets, and Carl Orff’s Carmina Burana.
The term “cadence” refers to a melodic or harmonic configuration that creates a sense of resolution or finality. Harmonic cadences involve progressions of at least two chords that conclude a musical phrase, section, or piece. Cadences are classified as “weak” or “strong” based on their sense of finality, and harmonic rhythm plays a crucial role in determining their placement within a composition.
Cadences play a crucial role in indicating the tonic or central pitch of a musical passage or composition, as suggested by Edward Lowinsky, who referred to them as the “cradle of tonality.”
In the common practice period, cadences are categorized into four types based on their harmonic progression: authentic, plagal, half, and deceptive.
Typically, phrases conclude with authentic or half cadences, while plagal and deceptive cadences involve motion that either avoids or follows a phrase-ending cadence. The Roman numeral system is commonly used to describe each cadence.
An authentic cadence, also known as a closed, standard, or perfect cadence, involves the progression from V to I (or V–I). Adding a seventh above the root is common, creating V7.
The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians notes that this cadence serves as a microcosm of the tonal system, being a direct and almost obligatory means of establishing a pitch as tonic. The term “perfect cadence” is sometimes used interchangeably with authentic cadence, but it can also have a more specific meaning depending on chord voicing.
A perfect authentic cadence occurs when the chords are in root position, with the roots of both chords in the bass, and the tonic in the highest voice of the final chord.
This cadence involves the progression from V to I in major keys and from V to i in minor keys. It is considered the strongest type of cadence, often found at structurally defining moments, providing complete harmonic and melodic closure.
Notably, Beethoven frequently employs this cadence, making it one of his distinctive musical signatures, as evidenced in works such as the Diabelli Variations and the C major climax of the slow movement of the Opus 132 String Quartet, even when described as being in the Lydian mode on F.
Lettering involves the creation of hand-drawn letters that are applied to various objects or surfaces. This encompasses calligraphy and lettering for diverse purposes like blueprints and comic books, as well as decorative applications such as sign painting, custom lettering graphics on posters, letterheads, business wordmarks, stone inscriptions, or graffiti. Lettering can be drawn or applied using stencils.
In the past, most decorative lettering, aside from that on paper, was crafted as custom or hand-painted lettering. The prevalence of fonts has grown due to advancements in printing methods, phototypesetting, and digital typesetting, allowing fonts to be printed at any desired size.
Letter cutting, a form of inscriptional architectural lettering, is closely tied to monumental masonry and stone carving. Often practiced by artists, sculptors, and typeface designers, letter cutting focuses on the beauty of the stone carver’s calligraphy rather than traditional stone carving, where images and symbols take precedence.
Calligraphy, derived from the Ancient Greek words “kallos” meaning “beauty” and “graphẽ” meaning “writing,” is a visual art form related to writing. It involves designing and executing lettering with a broad-tip instrument or brush in a single stroke.
Modern calligraphy spans functional hand-lettered inscriptions to fine-art pieces, with styles ranging from disciplined and fluid to spontaneous. Calligraphy is utilized in wedding invitations, font design, original hand-lettered logos, religious art, graphic design, commissioned calligraphic art, cut stone inscriptions, and various works involving writing.
Western calligraphy, particularly using the Latin alphabet, employs tools such as pens (flat-balled or round-nibbed) and brushes. Multi-nibbed pens or steel brushes may be used for decorative purposes.
Ink for writing is typically water-based, and high-quality paper or parchment is used to achieve clean lines. Light boxes and templates help in creating straight lines without pencil markings, while ruled paper serves as a guideline for lettering.
Overall, the art of lettering and calligraphy continues to thrive in various forms, encompassing both traditional and modern applications across different mediums and purposes.
In the realm of music theory, the term “minor scale” can denote a heptatonic scale where the first, third, and fifth degrees collectively form a minor triad.
Essentially, it is a seven-note scale wherein the third note is a minor third (three semitones) above the first, and the fifth note is a perfect fifth (seven semitones) above the first.
This category encompasses various scales, including the natural minor, harmonic minor, and melodic minor scales. The key distinction from a major scale lies in the major scale’s third degree being a major third (four semitones) above the first degree, unlike the minor scale where the third degree is one semitone lower.
The natural minor scale, also known as the Aeolian scale, stands out. When a major scale and a natural minor scale share the same key signature, they are termed relative keys. The natural minor scale comprises the same notes as its relative major scale but is constructed starting from the sixth note of the relative major scale.
The amalgamation of natural minor, harmonic minor, and melodic minor scales, as commonly employed in Western classical music, forms a functional fusion (see major and minor).
Notably, the harmonic minor scale diverges from the natural minor scale by raising the seventh note by one semitone in both ascending and descending sequences. In contrast, melodic minor scales raise both the sixth and seventh notes by one semitone when ascending, while descending follows the natural minor scale pattern.
The natural minor scale pattern is characterized by a sequence of whole and half steps, represented as W, H, W, W, H, W, W or, in semitones, 2, 1, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2 (T S T T S T T).
Playing the white keys on the piano from the sixth step of the C-major scale (A) to the octave above produces the A-minor scale, characterized by no accidentals (sharps or flats). A-minor is termed the relative minor of C, and every major key has a relative minor starting on the sixth scale degree.
The natural minor scale can also be notated as 1 2 ♭3 4 5 ♭6 ♭7 8, where each degree is represented by a number, indicating the difference from the major scale. In this example, the numbers signify: 1=unison, 2=major second, ♭3=minor third, 4=perfect fourth, 5=perfect fifth, ♭6=minor sixth, ♭7=minor seventh, 8=octave.
Moving to the harmonic minor scale, its notes mirror the natural minor except for the raised seventh degree, introducing an augmented second between the sixth and seventh degrees. This alteration transforms the seventh degree into a leading tone to the tonic, resembling major scales, as it is now only a semitone lower than the tonic.
This raised seventh degree is also referred to as the Aeolian ♯7. The harmonic minor scale adheres to the sequence of steps: [additional content can be continued]
Various stationery sources offer a range of pens, from traditional “nib” pens requiring ink dipping to calligraphy pens equipped with built-in cartridges, eliminating the need for frequent dipping into inkwells.
Sacred Western calligraphy possesses distinct characteristics, such as illuminating the initial letter of each book or chapter during medieval times. In this era, elaborate “carpet pages” preceding the literature featured intricate, geometric depictions of vibrant animals. The Lindisfarne Gospels (715-720 AD) serves as an early illustration of this (Brown 2004).
Similar to Chinese or Arabian calligraphies, Western calligraphic script adhered to strict rules and shapes. High-quality writing exhibited a rhythmic and regular letter arrangement, following a “geometrical” order on the page. Each character maintained, and often still maintains, a precise stroke order.
In contrast to a typeface, irregularities in characters’ size, style, and colors contribute meaning to the Greek translation of “beautiful writing.” The content may be entirely illegible, yet still hold significance for a viewer with empathy for the displayed work.
Many contemporary themes and variations in Western calligraphy can be traced back to The Saint John’s Bible. A modern example is The Holy Bible, Timothy Botts Illustrated edition (Tyndale House Publishers 2000), featuring 360 calligraphic images and a calligraphy typeface.
Displayed in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England, is a Latin Bible from AD 1407, handwritten in Belgium by Gerard Brils for reading aloud in a monastery.
Georgian calligraphy represents a centuries-old tradition of artistically writing the Georgian language with its three alphabets.
Western calligraphy is distinguished by its use of the Latin script. Originating around 600 BC in Rome, the Latin alphabet evolved into Roman imperial capitals carved on stones, Rustic capitals painted on walls, and Roman cursive for daily use by the first century.
The uncial lettering style emerged in the second and third centuries. As writing retreated to monasteries, uncial script became more suitable for copying the Bible and other religious texts. During the fall of the Roman Empire and the onset of the Dark Ages in Europe, it was the monasteries that preserved calligraphic traditions in the fourth and fifth centuries.
The term musical form, also known as musical architecture, denotes the comprehensive structure or design of a musical composition. It characterizes the arrangement of a piece into distinct sections, seeking a balance between unrelieved repetition and unrelieved alteration, as defined by Percy Scholes in The Oxford Companion to Music.
Richard Middleton describes musical form as the shape or structure of the work, emphasizing the significance of difference in terms of both quantity and quality—how far and of what type the variations are. Key elements include statement and restatement, unity and variety, as well as contrast and connection.
Musical form operates on multiple levels of organization. At its foundational level, it involves arranging pulses into accented and unaccented beats, forming motifs or figures when harmonized. Further organization occurs through the repetition and variation of measures, creating a musical phrase with distinct rhythm and duration, often implied in melody and harmony.
The smallest level of construction is the passage, where musical phrases are organized into sentences or paragraphs, akin to the structure of song verses or dance steps.
For instance, the twelve-bar blues exemplifies a specific verse form, while common meter is prevalent in hymns and ballads.
The Elizabethan galliard, like many dances, adheres to a specific rhythm, pace, and melodic length. Simpler musical styles may define themselves at this level, incorporating rhythmic, harmonic, timbral, occasional, and melodic conventions.
In analyzing musical form, components defined on the time axis, such as sections and units, are conventionally denoted by letters. Upper-case letters signify fundamental elements, while lower-case letters represent subdivisions.
Numerical digits or prime symbols are used to indicate a return of a section in a varied or modified form. Even at this basic level, reusable patterns emerge, analogous to rhyme schemes in poetry.
Consider the analogy with rhyme schemes: a verse composed of two differently-rhymed couplets (AABB) is binary or “twofold,” while another verse featuring repeated rhyme in the second line, a variant in the third line, and a return to the initial arrangement (AABA) follows a song form, indicating ternary or “threefold” organization.
Twinkle, twinkle, little star,
How I wonder what you are.
Up above the world so high,
like a diamond in the sky.
Contrast this with:
There once was a fellow from Leeds
Who swallowed a packet of seeds.
In less than an hour he burst into flower
And he died trying to pull up the weeds.
The subsequent level addresses the overall structure of any independent musical composition. If a hymn, ballad, blues, or dance, as mentioned earlier, continuously repeats the same musical material, it is considered to be in strophic form.
Conversely, if it iterates with distinct, sustained changes in setting, ornamentation, or instrumentation during each repetition, it adopts a theme and variations structure.
A simple binary form emerges when two distinctly different themes alternate indefinitely, as seen in songs alternating between verse and chorus or in the contrasting slow and fast sections of the Hungarian czardas.
Meanwhile, if a theme is played, followed by the introduction of a new theme, and the piece concludes by returning to the initial theme, it exhibits a simple ternary form.
The terms “ternary” and “binary” can lead to great debates and misunderstandings, as complex pieces may incorporate elements of both at various organizational levels. For instance, a Baroque dance like a minuet typically follows a simple binary structure (AABB).
However, this structure is often extended by introducing another minuet arranged for solo instruments (referred to as the trio), after which the initial minuet is repeated, concluding the piece.
This extended structure aligns with a ternary form (ABA), showcasing a binary composition on the lower level but a ternary structure on the higher level.
The lack of clear and universally defined organizational levels in Western musicology, combined with varying definitions of terms like “section” and “passage” by different scholars, further complicates the issue, as highlighted by Shankar.
The highest level of organization is termed “cyclical form,” involving the arrangement of several independent pieces into a large-scale composition. For example, a collection of songs sharing a common theme may form a song cycle, while a suite may present a series of Baroque dances. This level of musical form, although giving rise to different genres, takes into account the methods of musical organization employed. Symphonies, concertos, and sonatas may differ in scale and purpose but often share similarities in their organizational approach. The constituent pieces within the larger form are commonly referred to as movements.
Scholes proposed that European classical music encompasses only six stand-alone forms: simple binary, simple ternary, compound binary, rondo, air with variations, and fugue. However, Alfred Mann emphasized that the fugue primarily serves as a method of composition, occasionally adopting specific structural conventions.
In cases where a piece cannot easily be dissected into sectional units, even if borrowing some form from a poem, story, or program, it is considered through-composed. This often applies to compositions such as fantasias, preludes, rhapsodies, etudes, symphonic poems, bagatelles, impromptus, etc. Charles Keil categorized forms and formal details as “sectional, developmental, or variational.”
This form is constructed from a sequence of well-defined units, which may be denoted by letters or have generic names such as introduction, coda, exposition, development, recapitulation, verse, chorus, refrain, and bridge. Introductions and codas, when serving only those functions, are frequently excluded from formal analysis. These units typically adhere to a length of eight measures.
A rehearsal is a preparatory event for a performance, serving as a practice to ensure that all aspects of the upcoming presentation are well-prepared and coordinated.
While commonly associated with the performing arts in readiness for public displays, rehearsals are also utilized in various contexts to get ready for any anticipated activity.
The dress rehearsal constitutes a comprehensive run-through where performers meticulously fine-tune every detail of the performance.
In theater, cast members don their costumes, and the backdrop may be employed alongside props. For musical performances, the dress rehearsal marks the final run-through before the actual performance.
Within the realm of theater, a performing arts ensemble engages in rehearsals to prepare for a performance before an audience. Early production rehearsals are sometimes termed run-throughs, focusing on the actors learning dialogue and solidifying blocking and stage movement without incorporating many technical aspects.
A Q-2-Q, or cue-to-cue, is a type of technical rehearsal primarily for lighting and sound technicians. This rehearsal enables technicians and the stage manager to practice the technical aspects of the performance, such as lighting changes, sound effects, and stage movements.
Performers typically execute specific dialogue or actions to signal technical sequences, and abbreviated Q-2-Qs, called tops and tails, may only cover opening and closing sequences of acts or scenes.
Cue-to-cues are often preceded by a dry tech, where technicians rehearse cues without the actual performers present.
A dress rehearsal involves the ensemble dressing as they will during the performance, running the entire show from start to finish, including intermission pauses. An open dress, held at the end of technical week, invites specific individuals as audience members, such as patrons, family, friends, or media reviewers.
In traditional Japanese Noh theatre, performers typically rehearse separately, coming together only a few days before the show. This approach emphasizes the transience of the performance, aligning with the philosophy of “ichi-go ichi-e,” meaning “one chance, one meeting.”
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