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JSS 3 Basic Science

DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE

This topic provides an overview of the concepts related to drug and substance abuse, including definitions, types of drugs, causes, effects, and prevention strategies. Let’s break down the key points:

Definition of a Drug:

1. A drug is a chemical substance that affects the body’s actions.
2. It causes physical and mental changes when used.
3. When used under medical supervision, drugs can save lives, relieve pain, and combat diseases.

Drug Abuse:

1. Drug abuse involves using drugs without regard to medical prescription.
2. It can be defined as excessive and persistent use for purposes not intended.

Types of Drugs:

1. Licit drugs: Produced, sold, and used legally to treat diseases (e.g., paracetamol, antibiotics).
2. Illicit drugs: Produced and sold illegally, used to alter consciousness (e.g., Indian hemp, cocaine, heroin).

Substance Abuse:

1. Substance abuse includes the misuse of substances other than drugs, such as sugar and soft drinks.

Drug Addiction or Substance Dependence:

1. 1. It is the compulsive need to use controlled substances to function normally.
   2. It involves physical or psychological dependence on a drug.

Causes of Drug Abuse:

Curiosity, lack of self-confidence, peer pressure, excitement, frustration, and stress.

Effects of Drug Abuse:

1. Emotional problems: Anxiety, depression, mood swings, suicidal thoughts, schizophrenia.
2. Learning problems, uncontrollable sexual urges, health issues (e.g., stomach upset, damaged nostrils and lungs, skin rashes), and accidents.

Prevention of Drug Abuse:

1. Inculcation of coping skills and strong determination to stop drug abuse.
2. Positive social interaction and avoiding peer pressure.
3. Embracing a healthy lifestyle by controlling desires, avoiding smoking and excessive drinking, and avoiding self-medication.

Strategies for a Healthy Drug-Free Life:

1. Seek counsel, stay engaged, educate yourself.
2. Set achievable goals, spend time with family and loved ones.
3. Avoid temptation, exercise to reduce stress.

This topic emphasizes the importance of education, positive lifestyle choices, and social support in preventing and overcoming drug and substance abuse.

Drug Control Agencies

NAFDAC (National Agency for Food Drug Administration and Control):

   Functions:

1. Ensuring that adulterated foods are not sold to the public.
2. Maintaining proper quality control of manufactured food in industries.
3. Preventing the sale of expired drugs and food to the public.
4. Prosecuting offenders who violate rules and regulations in the manufacturing and sale of processed food materials.
5. Conducting enlightenment programs for food and drug manufacturers.
6. Monitoring the use of herbal medicine.

NDLEA (National Drug Law Enforcement Agency):

   Functions:

1. Controlling the movement of hard drugs in and out of the country.
2. Punishing drug barons by the law.
3. Organizing orientation and rehabilitation programs for hard drug users.
4. Confiscating hard drugs from their importers.
5. Prohibiting the importation and exportation of hard drugs.

Herbal Medicine:

1. Defined as preparations made from the roots, leaves, bark, seeds, and flowers of plants, commonly used in Africa and Asia for various illnesses.
2. **List of some herbal medicines in Nigeria:**
3. Agbo iba, Herbal toothpaste, Oroki herbal mixture, Yoyo bitter, Dudu osun soap, Ijebu Ode mixture drink, etc.

Misuse of Herbal Medicine:

   Causes of Misuse:

1. Contamination with toxic substances.
2. Lack of preservatives in the herbal mixture, leading to uncertain storage conditions.
3. Adulteration of herbal products.
4. Absence of specific or appropriate recommended dosages, potentially leading to users taking more than the required dosage.

Overall, the topic emphasizes the roles of NAFDAC and NDLEA in regulating and controlling the quality and distribution of food, drugs, and herbal medicines in Nigeria. It also highlights the potential issues and risks associated with the misuse of herbal medicines, including contamination and lack of standardized dosages.

FAMILY TRAITS

The text explains the concept of family traits, which are genetic characteristics passed from parents to their offspring through genes. Here are the key points outlined in the text:

Definition of Family Traits:

1. Family traits are genetic likenesses passed from parents to their children.
2. Genes, the hereditary units, carry these traits.

Examples of Inherited Traits:

1. Skin color (dark or fair)
2. Height (tallness or shortness)
3. Color of the skin, hair, eye iris
4. Facial features (shape of the face, eye, mouth, etc.)
5. Walking style
6. Quantity of hair on the head, body, eyebrows, and eyelashes
7. Voice
8. Abnormalities (albinism, sickle cell anemia, color blindness, hemophilia)

Dominant Traits:

1. Dominant traits are those that keep appearing in successive generations.
2. Dominant genes express themselves even in the presence of recessive genes.
3. Example: If a dominant tall man (TT) marries a tall woman with a recessive trait for shortness (Tt), all their children will be tall.

Recessive Traits:

1. Recessive traits are present but may not appear physically due to the presence of dominant genes.
2. They may suddenly appear in successive generations.
3. Example: If a tall man (TT) marries a short woman (tt), their children may carry recessive genes that can produce short children in the second generation.

Differences Between Dominant and Recessive Genes:

1. Dominant genes can express themselves even in the presence of recessive genes, while recessive genes can only express their effects in the absence of dominant genes.
2. Dominant genes do not require another gene to produce their effects, whereas recessive genes produce phenotypic effects only in the presence of a similar gene.
3. Dominant genes form complete polypeptides or enzymes for expressing their effects, while recessive genes form incomplete or defective polypeptides or enzymes.

Importance of Family Traits:

1. Understanding genetic diseases.
2. Tracing family genealogy.
3. Studying physical characteristics like eye color, skin color, hair color, body size, and height.
4. DNA tests and fingerprint analysis for crime detection.
5. Transfer of positive traits, such as intelligence, within a family.

Soil Erosion:

Definition:

Soil erosion is the process of the topsoil and subsoil being washed away or worn down by water or wind.

Process:

1. Detachment: Topsoil is detached from the rest of the soil.
2. Movement: The detached topsoil is transported to another area.
3. Deposition: The topsoil ends up deposited in a new location.

Causes:

1. Overgrazing of grasses or plants.
2. Bush burning.
3. Deforestation.
4. Building and construction work.
5. Wrong agricultural practices.
6. Human activities like oil spillage and mining.

Prevention and Control:

1. Mulching (using plant materials to cover soil).
2. Avoiding overgrazing.
3. Avoiding bush burning.
4. Public education and awareness.
5. Afforestation programs (tree planting).
6. Planting cover crops.
7. Terracing and contouring in erosion-prone areas.

Effects:

1. Water pollution.
2. Soil fertility loss.
3. Increased soil acidity.

Bush Burning:

Definition:

Bush burning is the intentional setting of forests, weeds, and grasses on fire.

Practices That Influence Bush Burning:

1. Poor agricultural practices (e.g., shift cultivation).
2. Hunting for animals.
3. Using fire to clear land for agriculture.
4. Construction of roads and felling of trees.
5. Grazing purposes by Fulani herdsmen.

Effects:

1. Kills animals and microorganisms.
2. Gradual loss of soil fertility.
3. Alkaline content in burnt ashes.
4. Exposes soil to erosion.
5. Destruction of plant species.
6. Migration of endangered species.
7. Disturbance in ecosystem balance.
8. Deforestation.
9. Vaporization of soil nutrients.
10. Contribution to air pollution and ozone layer depletion.

Prevention and Control:

1. Public education about consequences.
2. Government support for modern tools for farmers.
3. Support against bush burning.
4. Enforcing laws prohibiting bush burning.
5. Discouraging bush animal hunting.
6. Meeting the needs of the people by the government.

Regulations Against Bush Burning:

1. Compliance with local government directions for burning permits.
2. Burning should only occur with proper permits.
3. Permission may be denied if local authorities object.
4. Avoiding operations that could lead to bushfires.
5. Keeping registers of bushfires and associated losses.
6. Local government may impose restrictions on burning on certain days.

Both soil erosion and bush burning have severe environmental consequences, and the text emphasizes the importance of public awareness, government intervention, and responsible land management practices to mitigate these issues.

Flooding

Flooding is characterized by the overflow of water onto typically dry land. It occurs when a portion of the soil or land becomes submerged. Certain areas are susceptible to flooding, often due to soil composition.

Various Types of Flooding:

1. Flash Floods: These occur rapidly, usually triggered by intense rainfall within a short timeframe.
2. Rapid Onset Floods: Taking longer to accumulate, this type can last for a day or two.
3. Slow Onset Floods: Caused by water bodies overflowing their banks, these floods develop gradually and may persist for days or weeks.
4. Drainage Pattern: A system of water courses or drains designed to carry off excess water. Blockage during rainfall can impede water flow.

Different Drainage Patterns:

1. Parallel Drainage Pattern
2. Rectangular Drainage Pattern
3. Dendritic Drainage Pattern
4. Radial Drainage Pattern

Causes of Flooding:

1. Presence of impervious rock deep in the soil hindering water absorption.
2. Heavy rainfall.
3. Drainage blockages.
4. Water overflowing from dams.
5. Natural disasters like tsunamis, earthquakes, and hurricanes disrupting oceans.

Preventive Measures for Flooding:

1. Construction of canals or drainages in areas with impervious rock layers.
2. Proper river drainage, especially near dams.
3. Avoid construction across canals, drainages, and water courses.
4. Erecting walls along river, sea, and ocean banks to deter tidal waves.
5. Planting trees, shrubs, and grasses to break flood momentum and reduce erosion.
6. Public awareness campaigns to educate people about flood dangers and prevention.

Effects of Floods:

1. Damage to houses and valuable properties.
2. Loss of lives.
3. Increased disease spread due to water contamination.
4. Soil infertility from nutrient removal.
5. Reduced available land for cultivation.

DEFORESTATION

Deforestation, the process of clearing forested areas for various purposes without immediate replanting, is driven by several factors, including bush burning, construction activities (such as building schools and houses), tree felling for firewood, and the development of roads and bridges.

Causes of Deforestation:

1. Timber production for woodworks
2. Firewood and charcoal production for domestic and industrial use
3. Urban expansion and town development
4. Establishment of industries, markets, churches, houses, and mosques
5. Construction of roads and bridges
6. Overgrazing of grasses and small trees by large animals

Environmental Consequences of Deforestation:

1. Destruction of wind-breaking forests leading to adverse wind effects
2. Soil erosion causing damage to farmland and buildings
3. Increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, depleting the ozone layer and causing the greenhouse effect
4. Global warming due to the high concentration of carbon dioxide
5. Intense evaporation of soil water and nutrient exposure
6. Potential extinction of plant species
7. Migration and extinction of arboreal animals
8. Loss of forest resources, including resins, barks, fruits, honey, mushrooms, and medicinal plants
9. Scarcity of wood and desertification

Methods to Control Deforestation:

1. Afforestation programs (planting trees in areas where they did not exist before)
2. Reforestation (replanting trees in their original locations)
3. Adoption of alternative heat sources
4. Establishment of wildlife parks and game reserves
5. Implementation of modern methods for cattle rearing

Government Regulations to Combat Deforestation:

1. Restriction of logg
3. ing and compulsory tree planting programs for all loggers
4. Increased charges and penalties for indiscriminate logging
5. Regulatory instruments based on a “command and control” approach by public authorities
6. Legal protection of forest areas by the government.

DESERTIFICATION

Desertification is the gradual transformation of once fertile land into arid conditions, ultimately resulting in the formation of a desert. Alternatively, it can be defined as the expansion or intrusion of desert terrain into previously habitable areas.

Regions in close proximity to deserts are particularly susceptible to this environmental phenomenon. Human activities play a significant role in environmental degradation, including exposing soil to intense ultraviolet radiation from the sun, leading to increased evaporation and soil texture loosening, making it prone to erosion by rain and winds.

In Nigeria, areas at risk of desertification include the Sahel savannah in the North-East (encompassing Maiduguri, Yola, and other towns) and the Sudan savannah in the northern part near the border, covering Sokoto, Kano, Katsina, and Zamfara.

Various factors contribute to desertification, such as overgrazing, deforestation, bush burning, climate change, natural disasters, and urbanization.

The repercussions of desertification are numerous, including the difficulty of farming, increased risk of flooding, deterioration of water quality, migration and overpopulation in more suitable areas, and heightened levels of poverty.

To combat desertification, several methods can be employed:

1. Discouraging deforestation
2. Promoting afforestation
3. Advocating for bush fallowing and shift cultivation methods
4. Conducting public awareness campaigns to educate communities about the dangers of desertification
5. Implementing mulching techniques to prevent sand shifting
6. Constructing artificial bunds
7. Enhancing drainage systems.

DEPLETION TO OZONE LAYER

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Overview: The Earth’s atmosphere comprises various layers based on temperature, namely the thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere. The ozone layer, crucial for shielding life from harmful solar ultraviolet radiation, is situated in the stratosphere, approximately 19km to 48km above the Earth’s surface.

Causes of Ozone Layer Reduction:

Numerous gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapor, ozone, and methane, exist in the atmosphere. The combination of these gases with chemicals released from refrigerator compressors, such as Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), contributes to the reduction of the ozone layer.

Significance of the Ozone Layer:

1. The ozone layer provides a cooling effect on the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.
2. It absorbs high-energy solar radiation, particularly ultraviolet radiation that can cause skin sunburn.

Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion:

1. Adverse impacts on human health occur when depletion exposes the body to ultraviolet light, leading to conditions like skin cancer, cataracts, sunburn, weakened immune systems, and accelerated aging.
2. Plant growth and development experience retardation.
3. Marine life faces threats.
4. Depletion results in decreased ozone in the stratosphere, leading to more ozone in the lower atmosphere, contributing to the greenhouse effect. This, in turn, leads to global warming, melting polar ice, rising sea levels, and climate changes worldwide.

Control Measures for Ozone Depletion:

1. Avoiding the use of pesticides.
2. Reducing the number of vehicles on the road.
3. Using environmentally friendly cleaning products.
4. Prohibiting the use of nitrous.
5. Minimizing bush and household burning practices.

Resources From Living Things.

Resources derived from living organisms originate from both plants and animals. Plant-based resources encompass cash crops, food crops, dyes, and medicinal plants. Cash crops, like wood crops (iroko, mahogany, ebony), fibre crops (cotton), and oil crops (groundnut, palm oil), serve economic purposes, providing substantial quantities for domestic use and export, contributing to foreign exchange.

Food crops, including vegetables (pumpkin, lettuce, bitter leaves), root tubers (yam, cassava), fruits (guava, mango, orange), legumes (beans, melon), grains (rice, maize, millet), and oil plants (groundnut, palm oil, olive), offer essential nutrients like vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, and oils necessary for human growth and development.

Dyes and textiles originate from liquid plant extracts and textile crops like cotton, flax, guinea-hemp, sisal, and jute. These materials are employed in the production of clothing and various goods, with palm tree leaves and fronds used for crafting hats, bags, and baskets. Medicinal plants, sourced from the stems, roots, and leaves of plants like Cinchona and garlic species, produce chemical substances used for medicinal purposes.

Animal resources play a crucial role in providing food and various products for human needs. Hide and skin, obtained from large animals such as camels, buffalo, and cattle, find applications in leather industries for producing shoes, bags, purses, belts, and garments.

The skin of smaller animals like goats and rabbits is edible. Livestock, including goats, sheep, cows, pigs, and poultry birds, offer meat, milk, feathers, and droppings.

Poultry bird feathers, such as those from chickens and turkeys, are utilized for decorative purposes, while livestock droppings serve as valuable manure in agriculture.

Dairy, facilities where milk from animals like cows, horses, and camels is stored, is a rich source of protein used in the production of cheese, butter, and yogurt for both domestic consumption and export.

Economic Importance of Plant and Animal Resources

1. For Self Development:

Nutrient-Rich Food Sources: Plant and animal resources play a crucial role in human nutrition, serving as essential sources of nutrients for growth and development. Fruits, vegetables, and grains provide vitamins and minerals necessary for overall well-being.

Protein for Tissue Repair: Dairy products, derived from animal resources, are particularly valuable for their protein content. Proteins are essential for the repair and regeneration of worn-out tissues, aiding in the maintenance of a healthy and functioning body.

Utilization in Manufacturing: Animal by-products such as bones and horns find application in various industries, including furniture manufacturing. These materials contribute to the production of durable and aesthetically pleasing furniture items.

Medicinal Properties: Both plants and animals serve as vital sources of pharmaceutical compounds. Many drugs are derived from plant extracts and animal tissues, providing effective treatments for a wide range of health issues.

2. For Social Development:

Print Media and Paper Production: Trees, as plant resources, contribute significantly to the paper industry. The pulp obtained from trees is used in the production of paper, thereby supporting print media and fostering the dissemination of information.

Leather Industries: Animal hides and skins are indispensable in the leather industry. They are transformed into a myriad of products such as shoes, bags, rugs, carpets, and clothing items. This not only meets essential needs but also fuels economic activities in the fashion and textile sectors.

Aesthetic Beautification: Flowers, derived from plant resources, are employed for aesthetic purposes, enhancing the visual appeal of homes, gardens, and urban landscapes. This not only contributes to the beauty of surroundings but also supports the floriculture industry, providing economic opportunities.

Cultural and Recreational Significance: Many plant and animal resources hold cultural significance and are utilized in traditional practices, ceremonies, and recreational activities. This strengthens social bonds and fosters a sense of community identity.

The economic importance of plant and animal resources extends beyond basic sustenance, encompassing various sectors that contribute to individual and societal development. Recognizing and responsibly managing these resources are essential for maintaining a balanced and sustainable relationship between humans and the environment.

Resources From Non-living Things (Solid Material)

Minerals represent naturally occurring elements within the Earth’s soil, serving as a natural endowment for specific communities. These mineral resources can manifest in solid, liquid, or gaseous states.

Examples of mineral resources include petroleum, limestone, gold, coal, and others. In Nigeria, solid minerals such as gold, limestone, coal, tin ore, columbite, iron ore, and diamonds are prevalent but require refining processes typically conducted in factories before practical use.

Characteristics of solid minerals:

1. Diamond possesses a lustrous quality and stands as the hardest solid mineral.
2. Refined gold exhibits a lustrous appearance.
3. Coal ore is characterized by its black color.
4. Marble presents a milky appearance.
5. Iron displays a grey/brown coloration.

Significance of solid minerals:

1. Iron contributes to the construction of bridges, buildings, farm implements, and various motor parts.
2. Gold, silver, and diamonds find application in crafting jewelry such as earrings, necklaces, medals, and trophies.
3. A nation’s wealth, as measured in foreign reserves, can be quantified by its gold value.

Uses of coal:

1. Cooking purposes
2. Material production, including chemicals, paints, and dyes.
3. Energy generation for moving trains and producing electricity.

Clay:

1. Utilized in pottery industries for crafting plates, jugs, and mugs.
2. Combined with limestone for making chalk and cement.

Limestone:

1. Major material in cement production.
2. Used in hospitals as plaster of Paris for bone injuries.

Additional importance of solid minerals:

1. Employment opportunities
2. Industrial development
3. Agricultural development
4. Transportation development

Resources From Non-living Things and Their Location of Solid Mineral in Nigeria

Natural resources are essential components of a nation’s wealth and economic development, and Nigeria is endowed with a diverse array of solid minerals derived from non-living entities within its geographical expanse. The geographical distribution of these resources plays a pivotal role in shaping the economic landscape of the country.

In the realm of solid minerals, Nigeria boasts a rich tapestry of non-living resources, each strategically located across its varied topography. One prominent example is limestone, a vital raw material utilized in various industries. This invaluable mineral is abundant in Ewekoro, nestled within the scenic landscapes of Ogun state, as well as in Nkalagu, a region characterized by its natural beauty in Ebonyi state.

The precious metal, gold, which holds immense economic significance, is unearthed in the town of Ilesha, situated in the heart of Osun state. The shimmering deposits of gold contribute not only to the nation’s wealth but also to the intricate tapestry of its geological diversity.

Moving northward, the city of Jos in Plateau state stands as a beacon for two essential solid minerals—tin and columbite. Jos, with its undulating terrain, has long been recognized as a hub for the extraction of these valuable resources, playing a pivotal role in the nation’s mining industry.

In the southeastern region of Nigeria, specifically in Enugu state, the subterranean depths harbor a resource that has fueled industrial progress for generations—coal. Enugu stands proudly as a significant coal-producing region, contributing to the energy needs and industrial activities of the nation.

The strategic placement of these solid mineral deposits underscores the geological complexity of Nigeria, showcasing a mosaic of resources that have the potential to drive economic growth and development. However, it also emphasizes the need for sustainable management practices to ensure the responsible extraction and utilization of these non-living treasures, thereby fostering a harmonious balance between economic prosperity and environmental conservation.

LIGHT ENERGY

Energy is the capacity to perform work, and light qualifies as a form of energy due to its ability to do work. Light energy travels in a straight line, a phenomenon known as the rectilinear propagation of light. The pinhole camera operates based on this principle.

Other instances demonstrating the straight-line travel of light include the formation of shadows and eclipses. A ray of light is a straight path along which light travels, and a beam consists of a collection of parallel rays moving closely together. The beams of light may be:

1. Parallel: When rays of light travel parallel to each other.
2. Convergent: When rays of light meet at a point.
3. Divergent: When rays of light spread away from a point.

Concept of Light Transmission

When light rays fall on a surface, they may result in the following:

1. Reflection: The sending back of light rays from a smooth or highly polished surface, such as a mirror.
2. Refraction: The passage of light rays from one medium to another, causing them to appear bent, for example, light rays from air to water. This explains why objects in water may appear raised.
3. Transparent objects: Objects that allow light rays to pass through, such as glass and clear water.
4. Opaque objects: Objects that do not allow light to pass through, absorbing the light rays, such as wood, brick walls, cloth, and cardboard.
5. Translucent objects: Objects that allow light to pass through them but obscure the object from which the light originates, like oil paper, wax paper, and certain glass sheets.

Natural Luminous Objects

Luminous objects produce light on their own, examples being the sun, stars, glow-worms, and fireflies. Artificial luminous objects include electric lamps, kerosene lamps, and candles. Non-luminous objects, like the moon, cannot produce light on their own.

Reflection of Light

When a ray of light strikes a surface, it is reflected back. Reflection may be regular or diffuse. Regular reflection occurs when a parallel ray of light is reflected in the same direction on a smooth or highly polished surface. Diffuse reflection happens when a parallel ray of light is reflected in different directions, causing the rays to scatter.

Refraction of Light

Refraction is the change in the direction of light when it passes from one medium to another. The law of refraction includes:

1. The incident ray and refracted ray are on opposite sides of the normal.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of refraction.
3. The refractive index (n) is the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction (n = sin i / sin r).

Apparent Depth

When an object, like a coin, is placed in a transparent container with water, it appears raised when viewed from the top. This apparent depth is less than the actual depth at the bottom of the container.

Dispersion and Rainbow

When white light passes through a glass prism, it is split into seven component colors, forming a spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet (VIBGYOR). This dispersion also causes the formation of rainbows when sunlight passes through water droplets in the atmosphere.

Color Prism

Prisms, whether rectangular or triangular blocks of glass, change the direction of light rays, producing coloured images, similar to the colours of a rainbow.

Mechanism of Seeing

Light rays from an object enter the eye, undergo refraction in the cornea and aqueous humor, further bending in the lens, and focus on the retina. The retina forms an inverted image, which is smaller than the object. Optic nerves transmit impulses to the brain, where the image’s size and color are correctly interpreted in the visual centers of the cerebral hemisphere.

SOUND ENERGY

Sound, a manifestation of energy, propagates through a medium via vibrations in the form of waves, reaching the listener. These waves, perceived as sound, can be broadly categorized into two types: musical sounds and noise.

Musical sounds result from regular vibrations produced by various instruments such as the flute, trumpet, drum, guitar, piano, and gong. On the other hand, noise is generated by irregular disturbances like collisions and explosions.

For sound to travel, a medium is essential, and it can traverse through air, wire, metals, and pipes. Notably, sound can be converted into electrical signals for long-distance transmission, as seen in land telephones.

Similar to light waves, sound waves exhibit reflection when encountering hard surfaces like walls or rocks, leading to the phenomenon known as an echo. Additionally, sound waves can refract when transitioning between different mediums, and they may undergo diffraction and interference.

Characteristics of sound waves include reflection, refraction, and the necessity of a medium for travel, with the fastest propagation occurring in solids.

Mechanism of Hearing:

In the process of hearing, sound waves enter the pinnae and are directed into the auditory canal, causing the eardrum to vibrate. The vibrations then set the ossicles into greater motion, amplifying the vibration in the middle ear. The oval window, smaller in size than the eardrum, vibrates more significantly due to this amplification. These vibrations in the oval window are transferred to the endolymph in the cochlea, causing the membrane carrying hair cells to vibrate.

As a result of these vibrations, the hair cells generate a nerve impulse, which is conveyed through the auditory nerve to the auditory region of the brain. In the brain, this impulse is interpreted as sound. This intricate process illustrates the remarkable mechanism by which the human auditory system translates sound waves into the perception of sound.

Magnetism

Loadstone, a naturally occurring magnetic oxide of iron or natural magnet, was first identified in China 2000 years ago. This magnetic mineral possesses the ability to attract iron and steel objects. When suspended, loadstone swings freely, consistently aligning itself with the north and south directions.

Laws of Magnetism:

1. Similar magnetic poles repel each other.
2. Unlike magnetic poles attract each other.

Magnetic Poles and Fields:

A suspended magnet will naturally align with the north-south direction, with the end pointing toward the geographical north pole being the magnet’s south pole. Conversely, the end pointing to the geographical south pole is the magnet’s north pole.

The region surrounding a magnet where magnetic force is detectable is termed the magnetic field or magnetic domain. In the Earth’s uniform magnetic field, lines of force are parallel and evenly spaced.

Magnetic Field for Different Configurations:

1. For two isolated poles (N-S), lines run from the north to the south pole.
2. Two similar isolated poles (N-N) have a neutral point in-between.

Pole Characteristics:

The ends of magnets are referred to as poles, with the strongest magnetic force concentrated at these points.

Care or Maintenance of Magnets:

1. Use a keeper – a temporary iron piece added between the magnet’s north and south poles to prevent demagnetization by redirecting the magnetic field.
2. Store magnets in pairs.
3. Keep them in a dry place.
4. Store in a non-ferromagnetic container.
5. Store in a cool place.
6. Magnets may be coated or cased to prevent corrosion.
7. Avoid heating magnets as it can destroy their magnetic properties.

Uses of Magnets:

Magnets find applications in various fields, including:

1. Radio communication
2. Telegraphy
3. Appliances such as computers, electric generators, loudspeakers, microphones, and electromagnets.

Electrical Energy.

Electrical energy is essential for various operations in industries, offices, and homes. Appliances such as blenders, televisions, irons, and refrigerators all rely on electrical energy for their operation. Electric current, the movement of electrons through a metallic conductor (wires) in a circuit, facilitates the functioning of electronic devices.

An electronic circuit serves as the path for the flow of electron current from a cell or battery to a lamp and back to the cell. A simple electric circuit involves two main ways of connecting circuit elements: series connection, where elements are joined end-to-end, and parallel connection, where the high potential terminals are joined together.

In a series circuit, the total resistance (R) is the sum of individual resistances (R₁ and R₂): R = R₁ + R₂. In a parallel circuit, the total resistance is calculated as follows: 1/R = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂.

Components of a circuit include resistors, lamps (indicating electricity flow), switches (for turning current on/off), ammeters (measuring current), voltmeters (detecting electric potential), galvanometers (detecting current flow), fuses (cutting off current in emergencies), and circuit breakers (enhancing safety in house circuits).

Open circuits occur when a switch is open or a wire is broken, preventing the flow of current. Basic terms in electricity include current (electron flow), resistance (R), voltage (V), potential difference (PD), and electromotive force (e.m.f).

House circuits are typically wired in parallel for advantages such as the ability to keep other bulbs on if one burns out, unlike in series circuits where all bulbs go off.

Electric meter reading and billing involve measuring the electric energy consumed. The meter reading table shows the previous and present readings, units consumed, cost per unit, and the total amount billed. In the provided example, the total amount is calculated as 3498.61 naira based on the unit consumed and cost per unit.

SKILL ACQUISITION

Skill acquisition refers to the unique abilities developed through training to excel in a particular task or activity.

MOTIVATIONS FOR SKILL ACQUISITION

1. Employment: Aiming to secure job opportunities.
2. Entrepreneurship: Seeking independence by being self-employed.
3. Decision Making: Enhancing capabilities for effective decision-making.
4. Risk Taking: Building skills to navigate and manage risks.
5. Emergency Management: Acquiring proficiency in handling emergency situations.
6. Interpersonal Skills: Learning to live harmoniously with others.
7. Survival Strategies: Gaining knowledge of survival tactics.

VARIOUS SKILL CATEGORIES

1. Photography: The technology of capturing images on print or projected screens.
2. Farming Skills: Abilities related to cultivating crops and raising animals, such as poultry farming and snailery.
3. Computer Literacy: Essential skills for sending, retrieving information, and record-keeping.
4. Internet Usage: Navigating the interconnected network of computers for accessing information worldwide.
5. Internet Browsing: Searching for and extracting information from the internet using search engines.
6. E-mail Operation: Managing web-based email services for sending and receiving messages and data.
7. Fax Operations: Using fax machines to reproduce exact copies of written, printed, or pictorial documents.

SIGNIFICANCE OF SKILL ACQUISITION

1. Improved Quality of Life: Enhancing one’s capabilities for a better life.
2. Entertainment and Leisure: Providing enjoyable games and entertainment options.
3. Service Provision: Offering services to others based on acquired skills.
4. Life-saving Skills: Playing a crucial role in saving lives.
5. Opportunity Expansion: Widening possibilities for achieving recognition and success.
6. Functional Literacy: Attaining practical literacy applicable in various contexts.

FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION 1

TEENAGE PREGNANCY is defined as pregnancy occurring in young women aged ten to nineteen, regardless of marital status or legal adulthood. It is associated with both biological effects and social factors.

CAUSES OF TEENAGE PREGNANCY:

1. Societal beliefs, such as early marriage and traditional gender roles.
2. Lack of comprehensive sexuality education, including safe sex information from schools, parents, and other sources.
3. Use of contraceptives with high failure rates.
4. Substance abuse, such as drugs and alcohol, leading to unintended sexual activities.
5. Poverty and the absence of essential life resources.

IMPLICATIONS OF TEENAGE PREGNANCY:

1. Health implications:

1. Pregnancy-induced hypertension can lead to heart failure and the death of both mother and child.
2. Iron deficiency anemia reduces the chances of survival and increases the risk of excessive bleeding.
3. Incomplete abortion.
4. Infections and injuries to genital organs.

1. Unsafe abortion by unqualified healthcare providers.

1. Social-Economic implications:

1. Termination of education.
2. Disruption of life plans and career goals.

3.. Early and forced marriage due to pregnancy.

4. Low self-esteem.
5. Limited job opportunities with low income and poverty.

Emotional or psychological implications:

1. Loneliness and depression.
2. Feelings of guilt and fear.
3. Emotional or psychological imbalance due to the loss of childhood and the adaptation to adulthood.

CARE NEEDED DURING PREGNANCY:

1. Seek pregnancy testing immediately after missing a period.
2. Confide in someone trustworthy.
3. Enroll in antenatal care check-ups with a medical provider.
4. Adhere to proper antenatal care instructions, including prescribed medications.
5. Consume nourishing foods rich in protein, calcium, folic acid, iodine, and iron.
6. Ensure adequate rest and relaxation.
7. Avoid smoking cigarettes and consuming alcohol.

MYTHS AND FACTS ABOUT PREGNANCY:

A myth is a belief without basis in reality, while a fact is a verifiable truth.

MYTHS ABOUT PREGNANCY:

1. Only pregnancy can cause a woman’s menstrual period to cease.
2. Every pregnant woman experiences vomiting.
3. Pregnancy makes women unclean before God.
4. All pregnant women have morning sickness.
5. Pregnant women should not dye their hair.
6. Pregnant women should avoid eating fish.
7. Pregnancy is impossible during menstruation.
8. First-time sex can lead to pregnancy.
9. Washing the vagina after sex won’t lead to pregnancy.
10. Pregnant women should not take baths.

FACTS ABOUT PREGNANCY:

1. Pregnant women should avoid carrying heavy items.
2. Some women may experience bleeding even when pregnant.
3. Pregnant women should abstain from alcohol.
4. Pregnancy typically lasts for less than a year.
5. Pregnant women should avoid changing cat litter.

FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION 2

ABORTION is the intentional termination of human pregnancy, concluding it by removing the fetus and embryos before they can survive outside the uterus.

TYPES OF ABORTION:

1. INDUCED ABORTION: The deliberate decision of a woman to terminate pregnancy through surgery or medication.
2. SPONTANEOUS/MISCARRIAGE ABORTION: The natural occurrence of abortion without intentional induction.

REASONS FOR ABORTION:

1. Contraceptive failure in birth control.
2. Inability to support or care for a child.
3. Unwanted pregnancy.
4. Prevention of the birth of a child with a birth defect.
5. Pregnancy resulting from rape or incest.
6. Health problems endangering the woman’s life.
7. Fear of expulsion from school/parental fear.

CONSEQUENCES OF UNSAFE ABORTION:

1. Incomplete abortion may lead to hemorrhage, pelvic pain, and protracted bleeding.
2. Infection may arise from the use of unsterilized instruments.
3. Uterine perforation may occur.
4. Secondary sterility may result.
5. Feelings of guilt and shame.
6. Increased risk of frequent miscarriage and premature birth.
7. Physical trauma before and after abortion.

WAYS OF PREVENTING ABORTION:

1. Proper sex education.
2. Abstinence.
3. Pregnancy prevention plan [PPP].
4. Use of condoms.
5. Sterilization to prevent pregnancy.

NEED TO SEEK COUNSELING FOR UNWANTED PREGNANCY:

Seeking assistance involves providing support or relief to cope with the situation.

1. Facilitates coping with the problem.
2. Provides perspective on the problem.
3. Offers guidance on where to find additional help when needed.
4. Alleviates emotional trauma.
5. Improves the quality of life.

RADIOACTVITY

Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of an atom’s nucleus within an element. This phenomenon involves nuclear reactions wherein the movement of elements within the nucleus weakens the force holding it together, resulting in the instability of the atom. Such unstable atoms may spontaneously break up, emitting energy in the process.

In 1896, Becquerel was the first scientist to observe the spontaneous emission of radiation by uranium salt. Pierre and Marie Curie also discovered two new radioactive elements, namely polonium and radium.

Radioactive elements are isotopes of elements with unstable nuclei that spontaneously break down, emitting radiation and releasing a substantial amount of energy to achieve a stable composition. Isotopes are elements with equal numbers of protons but differing numbers of neutrons in the nucleus.

Examples of radioactive elements include carbon-14, uranium-238, cobalt-60, uranium-235, hydrogen-3, radium-241, and thorium-232.

TYPES OF RADIATION AND THEIR PROPERTIES

1. ALPHA EMISSION – [α]

Radioactive isotopes emit alpha particles ([He]). The mass number of the isotope is reduced by 4, and the atomic number is reduced by 2.

   PROPERTIES OF ALPHA EMISSION:

1. Positively charged.
2. Has penetrating power but can be stopped by a sheet of paper.
3. Can be deflected toward the negatively charged plate in an electrostatic field.
4. Exhibits high ionizing power.
5. Comprises helium particles.

2. BETA EMISSION – [β]

When a radioactive isotope emits a beta particle, the atomic number increases by 1, with no effect on the mass number. Beta particles are represented by a proton with the loss of an electron.

   PROPERTIES OF BETA EMISSION:

1. Negatively charged.
2. Relatively small mass.
3. Deflected toward the positive plate in an electrostatic field.
4. Greater penetrating power than alpha particles.
5. Lower ionizing power than alpha particles.

3. GAMMA (γ) EMISSION 

Gamma rays are represented by [γ] and are often emitted along with alpha and beta particles.

   PROPERTIES OF GAMMA EMISSION:

1. Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves similar to visible light.
2. Least ionizing power.
3. Greatest penetrating power compared to alpha and beta particles.
4. Induces fluorescence in sodium iodine and zinc sulfate.
5. Unaffected by an electrostatic field.

TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS

1. NUCLEAR FISSION – The breaking down or splitting of heavy radioactive isotopes to produce smaller (lighter) isotopes of other elements.
2. NUCLEAR FUSION – Two or more light nuclei come together to form a heavy nucleus.

X-RAYS

X-rays are electromagnetic waves that can penetrate through most solid materials. Soft x-rays find applications in medicine for imaging human body parts and in studying the arrangement of particles in crystal lattices, especially proteins.

USES OF RADIOACTIVITY

1. Generating electricity.
2. Curing cancer or cancer treatment.
3. In the food industry, it is used to eliminate decay-causing bacteria and molds.
4. As a tracer.
5. In carbon dating to determine the age of specimens.

Ethnical Issues in Science and Development

Ethical considerations in science and development focus on the principles governing the proper conduct and application of scientific advancements to ensure decorum, coherence, and high standards. The misuse of science can lead to hazards and hinder societal progress.

Appropriate applications of science

1. Agricultural Development: Technological advancements have enhanced agricultural practices, leading to increased food production through the judicious use of fertilizers.

2. Communication: Information technology (IT) has revolutionized communication, with advancements such as GSM, internet, radio, and television replacing slower methods like letter posting. Examples include the use of mosquito nets and anti-malaria drugs, which have contributed to the reduction of malaria cases.

3. Defense: Satellites play a crucial role in crime detection and monitoring societal activities for protection. Weapons construction aids in crime prevention and national defense against external threats.

4. Energy Generation: Scientific knowledge facilitates energy production through various means such as hydroelectric power, nuclear power, and solar power.

Negative implications of unethical scientific practices 

1. Agriculture: Improper use of fertilizers can lead to water pollution, negatively impacting aquatic life and ecosystems. Ethical considerations are necessary to align with international best practices.

2. Communication: The misuse of communication devices, like internet browsing, can contribute to social crimes such as fraud, impersonation, terrorism, and the spread of pornography.

3. Development of Weapons: Unethical practices in developing nuclear weapons can contribute to terrorism and unnecessary conflicts.

4. Industrial Automation: The industrial use of computers, while improving efficiency, may result in reduced manpower and potential unemployment.

5. Environmental Impact: Pollution is a concern in areas such as energy generation and mineral resource extraction, necessitating responsible practices to mitigate adverse effects on the environment.

Simple Machine

Definition of a Simple Machine:

A machine is any arrangement designed to facilitate the performance of work effortlessly.

Varieties of Simple Machines:

Various types of simple machines include the lever, pulley, wheel and axle, inclined plane, screw, jack, and hydraulic press. A machine comprises three crucial components: the pivot or fulcrum, effort, and load.

Components of a Machine:

The effort is the section where force is exerted on the machine. The pivot or fulcrum serves as the turning point or connecting link between the effort and the load. The load represents the force, weight, or resistance that the machine must overcome.

Levers and Their Classes:

Levers are distinguished by their unique arrangement of the three essential components: effort, load, and pivot. There are three classes of levers: first class lever, second class lever, and third class lever.

1. First class lever: The pivot is positioned between the load and the effort. Examples include scissors, pliers, see-saws, and claw hammers.
2. Second class lever: The load is situated between the effort and the pivot. Examples encompass wheelbarrows, nutcrackers, nails, clippers, and bottle openers.
3. Third class lever: The effort is found between the pivot and the load. Examples include the human forearm, laboratory tongs, and fishing rods.

Inclined Plane:

An inclined plane is a simple machine used to move objects to a higher or lower position. It requires less effort to lift an object straight up than to push it up a slope to a greater height.

Pulleys:

Pulleys are simple machines altering the direction or magnitude of force. They consist of a wheel with a groove along its rim and a movable rope around the wheel.

Wedge:

A wedge operates on the principles of an inclined plane and is used for cutting and piercing. Examples include knives, pin blades, and axes.

Efficiency:

The efficiency of a machine is expressed as the ratio of energy output to energy input, always represented in percentage form.

Maintenance of Machines:

Proper machine maintenance involves oiling, greasing, using ball bearings to reduce friction, regular removal of dirt, checking engine oil, and inspecting machines for faults.

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